LOGIC

LESSON 1: Critical Thinking Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

- An attempt at changing the way we think  Are honest with themselves, acknowledging what they
don’t know, watchful of their own errors.
I. Introduction – Pretend they know more than they do, thinks their views
 Thinking is a natural ability. are error-free.
 Critical thinking does not come naturally, we need to work  Bases judgments on evidence, not personal preferences,
on it to develop it. delays judgment if evidence is inadequate. Revises
- How? By understanding basic logical principles and judgments when new evidence reveals error.
going through intellectual exercises that improves – Bases judgments on first impressions and gut feel, clings
our thinking skills. to earlier views firmly.
 Success in school, work, relationships and life depend on  Interested in ideas of others even when they disagree
thinking skills. with the other person.
- We have to think well, i.e. to think clearly and – Engrossed with own opinions, not paying attention to views
objectively, forget our biases and make reasonable of others.
and intelligent decisions.  Practices restraint, controlling feelings rather than the
- We must make the effort to learn its principles and other way around; thinks before acting.
techniques. Is it a goal worth pursuing? – Tends to follow feelings and acts impulsively.
 Thinks independently and is not afraid to disagree with
What is Critical Thinking? the majority or group opinion.
 Focused in exercising objective, fair, and skilled judgment – Can easily be swayed by peer pressure, uncritically follows
and analysis of ideas, beliefs and arguments. beliefs and values of the group.
 Critical thinking, therefore, is a general term given to a
wide range of cognitive skills needed to effectively Value of Critical Thinking
interpret, analyze and evaluate arguments and truth  Professors are concerned not only about what you
claims, to formulate logical arguments and, to formulate believe but why you believe it.
logical arguments and to make reasonable and sound  Critical thinking can help us avoid making foolish
decisions. (Evangelista) personal decisions.
- In short, critical thinking means thinking clearly,  As citizens of a democratic society, we have the ultimate
logically and intelligently. say over who will lead us and consequently what
policies and programs will be implemented.
Critical Thinking Skills
 Practicing critical thinking is a matter of self-respect.
 Before we can assess an argument, we must determine
its precise meaning – what it actually claims. Critical Thinking and Logic
To be a critical thinker one must be able to evaluate the
1. Interpretative skills soundness of arguments and formulate good arguments.
Ex: How many students attend your class? There are few This is the primary concern of one of the main branches of
students who attend my class. philosophy – logic. Simply put, logic, is the science of correct
- His pitch was high. reasoning. It is the study of the methods and principles used
to distinguish good (correct) reasoning from bad (incorrect)
 The soundness of arguments depends on the truth of reasoning. (Evangelista)
their statements. One should determine the truth or falsity
of statements.

2. Verification skills
Ex: It will rain this evening.
All swans are white.
The sum of the angles of every triangle is 180 degrees.

 The logic of arguments depends on whether or not what

it claims has adequate support or basis for it to be
accepted.

3. Reasoning skills
Ex: Dr. Laxamana comes from a family of reputable doctors.
He must be a very good doctor.
- Skill in asking relevant questions.
LOGIC
LESSON 2: Introduction to Logic Necessity and Importance
 Natural logic is the natural aptitude of the mind to reason
What is Logic? out correctly. It is commonly referred to, in everyday
 The science of correct and inferential thinking. parlance, “Common Sense”. Without it, we could not have
 As a science, is a comprehensive system of information developed the science of Logic.
concerning its subject matter? It demonstrates or proves  But, in difficulty and profound matters, the mind cannot
its conclusions, which are the laws and patterns of valid reason out with certainty as to the correctness of its
inference. inference and procedure without the precise knowledge
 Inferential understanding means that the reader must of the causes and laws of correct and valid inference.
“read between the lines” which can lead them to think  Logic is also useful and necessary for equipping the mind
beyond the text and reflect on their thinking. with knowledgeability for making correct inferences and
determining the correctness of the inferences people
make regarding abstract things.

MATH + LOGIC = ACCOUNTING

The Proponent
 Aristotle first explored Logic in a systematic passion in his
set of writings called “Organon”.
 The universal rational instrument for the acquisition of
philosophical knowledge.

Two Types of Logic

1. Informal Logic (Induction) – Amount of evidence
determines success.

Examples of inductive reasoning:

o Prediction – Inferring from past to future.
o Analogy – Inferring from known similarities to
unknown similarities.
o Generalization – Inferring from a sample to a class.
o Authority – Inferring from expertise.
o Signification – inferring from signs.
Note: gives us only probable conclusions

2. Formal Logic (deduction)

- Structure/form determines success.
- It gives us certainty to our conclusion.

Examples of Formal Logic:

o Syllogistic Logic – Relationship of terms in a
categorical proposition.
o Propositional Logic – Relationship between
propositions.
LOGIC
LESSON 3: Division of Logic Properties of Ideas
1. Comprehension
- Is the set of thought elements or conceptual features
contained in an idea.
- The sum total of thoughts elements/conceptual features
that comprise an idea.
- Implication or Connotation of an idea

Note: The idea of a cellphone is composed of different

elements.
o Electronic
o Device
o Use to call and text someone
o Internet
o Wireless
All these when put together comprise the COMPREHENSION
of a cellphone.
Apprehension - An idea will be difficult to understand if one or many
- Is the act of the mind by which it “grasps” or knows the elements are missing.
nature or essence of a thing, without affirming or denying
anything about it. 2. Extension
- The act of the mind grasping a complex idea cannot be - Is the range or scope of individuals and classes to which
said to be a simple apprehension, although it is an an idea may be applied.
apprehension. Likewise, ideas that are expressed - The examples/applications to which an idea may be
through elaborate definitions are the results of several applied.
partial simple apprehensions, several mental - Application or Denotation of an idea
comparisons and even possibly of inferences. But, the Extensions of a cellphone: OPPO Reno 5G, Iphone 13, Vivo
understanding thereof is a mental apprehension. Y73

The Idea LOGICAL RULE:

- Is the intellectual image or representation of a thing  There is a reverse relationship between comprehension
- An abstract representation of things and extension.
- Building block of knowledge and of inference - The greater the comprehension, the lesser the
extension.
Phantasm - The lesser the comprehension, the greater the
- Is a sensible representation of the material features of a extension.
thing

“That by which we know”

- The idea or concept is not the terminus proper of our
mental cognition, but that by which we know things as to Proper nouns (extension) are more specific. Therefore,
their nature, or the formal reasons of things. This is they have greater comprehension.
so, because the concept is a formal sign, namely, - Proper nouns are extension themselves so they
something that reveals another thing from its likeness or have less extension.
resemblance to the latter. Example: Cellphone - Vivo Y73
Man – Ferdinand Marcos
Example: a picture is a formal sign of the physical appearance Classificatory words (Genus) are general so they have
of a person, because it resembles the said physical greater extension.
appearance. - Common noun with their corresponding types have
lesser comprehension.
Example: Animal – Vertebrate
Cat - Persian
LOGIC
LESSON 4: Types of Ideas C. According to Perfection

A. According to Comprehension (Property) 1. Precise – idea that expresses the reason or conceptual
features of an object in an exact manner
1. Simple and Compound (Structures) - Eyeglasses: a pair of lenses mounted on a frame for
the purpose of aiding defective vision
SIMPLE - Expresses a single conceptual feature, applicable - Circle: a closed curved line equidistant from the
to all if not most. center
- BEING, EXISTENCE 2. Imprecise – idea that expresses an object according to
common or general features
COMPOUND – Expresses several conceptual - Eyeglasses: a pair of glasses worn in front of the
elements/features eyes
- CELLPHONE, ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION - Circle: a closed curved line
DEVICE 3. Clear - idea that expresses the conceptual reason or
formal features of an object in a distinct manner
2. One and Multiple (General view) - Eyeglasses: a pair of glasses worn in front of the
eyes
ONE - Expresses one thing, nature or formal feature. - Circle: a closed curved line equidistant from the
- EGG, BUILDING center
4. Obscure – idea that expresses the conceptual reason or
MULTIPLE - Expresses explicitly a thing as modified by formal features of an object in a vague and indistinct
another thing. manner
- BOILED EGG, COMMERCIAL BUILDING - Man is a handsome and talking primate
- Man is a living being like a tree
3. Concrete and Abstract (Subject)
D. According to Relation
CONCRETE - An idea with a subject.
- PAIN, HUNGER 1. Identical - Same conceptual features.
Ex: 4+10, 10+4
ABSTRACT - An idea that expresses only a nature or 2. Equivalent - Different conceptual features.
a formal feature without a subject. Ex: 10x9, 89+1
- HOPE, JUSTICE 3. Pertinent - Ideas that are somehow related to each other.
Ex: Freedom and Responsibility, Heavy and Light
4. Absolute and Relative 4. Impertinent - Neither related nor opposed to each other.
Ex: Toothpick and Dog, Marriage and Flood
ABSOLUTE - Exist in itself and for itself. 5. Compatible - With features that may exist in a subject.
- MAN, ANIMAL Ex: Beauty and Intelligence, Faith and Reason
6. Incompatible - With features that may not exist in a
RELATIVE - Necessary bears a relation to something else. subject.
- ARMY RESERVIST, ASSISTANT SECRETARY Ex: Courage and Fear, Big and Small
TYPES OF INCOMPATIBLE IDEAS
B. According to Extension • Contradictory – Negation
Black – Non Black
1. Singular – applies to a single member of class Open – Non Opened
Ex: The Chairman of the Board, The Valedictorian of • Contrary – Opposition
STMC Class of 2022 Black – White
2. Universal - applies individually to all members of the class Open – Closed
Ex: Car, Dog • Privative – Indicates the absence of a thing.
3. Particular – applies to some members of the class Sight – Blindness
Ex: Half a dozen, several ladies • Correlative – Complementariness (Indicates
4. Collective – applies to all members of the class counted partnership)
as one Man - Woman
Ex: Class, STMC Batch of 2022 Rule for Contradictory Ideas
If one is true, the other is false or vice-versa. You cannot say
5. Transcendental – applies to all members of all classes
one is true and the other is true also.
Ex: Being, truth
Paul is a man. (True) Paul is a woman. (False)
Rule for Contrary Ideas
If one is true, the other is false (doubtful) but not vice-versa.
Paul is a man. (True) Paul is a Muslim. (False)
LOGIC
LESSON 5: Terms Types of Analogies

What are the Types of Terms? 1. ANALOGY OF ATTRIBUTION - when the objects of
Note: Ideas are the mental representation of terms. analogy are pertinent concepts.
- Your idea of an apple can be expressed by using Ex. Healthy urine is a sign of healthy diet
letters or words. - Analogous term: health
- Term is the external expression of an idea. - Object of analogy: urine, diet

 For every idea there is a corresponding term. Words, 2. ANALOGY BY PROPORTIONALITY - when the objects
however, are not necessarily terms. of analogy are impertinent concepts or when they are
 Thus, there is no one to one correspondence between connected only by the analogue.
terms and words. Ex. The man in white shirt bought a basket of white
chocolates
 A word may not necessarily represent an idea but all
- Analogous term: white
terms are words that contain corresponding ideas.
- Object of analogy: shirt, chocolates
Explanation:
Terms According to Quality
Sensible – spoken or written words
Sign – is something that manifests another thing aside from
1. POSITIVE
itself.
- Signifies the possession of or existence of
Conventional – is one whose connection with the object
something.
it manifests is given by nature
Good, Rich
o Smoke is a sign that there is fire
- The term expresses the thing itself.
o Heavy dark clouds signifies rain
Understanding, Justice, Happy
Formal – is one that manifests an object from its likeness
or resemblance
o Photograph, mathematical symbols 2. NEGATIVE
Instrumental – one which manifests an object aside from - Signifies the absence of something.
any other connection it bears to the latter Evil, Poor
o flag, color, tooting of a ship’s horn - The structure of the term expresses opposition or
negation.
Misunderstanding, Injustice, Unhappy
Terms According to Meaning
Terms According to its Components
1. UNIVOCAL - when two terms pertain to the same and
exact meaning.
1. SIMPLE – consists only of one word. A term is simple
- Jema Galanza is a volleyball player. Deanna Wong
even if it has a prefix or suffix.
is a volleyball player.
Wellness, Motherly, Sunny
- Coke is a soda. Pepsi is a soda.
- Hamburger is American. Johnny Depp is American.
(not univocal) 2. COMPOUND – consists of two or more words which
when taken separately they can stand
2. EQUIVOCAL - when two terms of different meanings are independently.
externally alike. Basketball, Godmother, Sunlight
- I saw the man carrying my grandpa’s saw.
- My eyes are in pain so Peter gave me ice to lessen
the pain.

3. METHAPORICAL - when terms are symbolically used,

literally and figuratively, to pertain to another meaning.
- My voice is my bread and butter.
- You are the apple of my eyes.

4. ANALOGOUS - when terms are of kindred (partly the

same and partly different) meanings.
- The man is drinking red wine while painting the car
red.
LOGIC
LESSON 6: Supposition and Appellation According to Comprehension

TERMS 1. Material – inasmuch as the term stands only for the

Terms as employed in the sentence have two important subject that is identified by the nature or qualification
functions or uses: Supposition and Appellation. They are also expressed but not as qualified by them.
known as properties of terms within the proposition. Ex. The physician sings.
A sinner can be a saint.
SUPPOSITION
This is the property of the term inasmuch as it stands for a 2. Formal – inasmuch as the term stands for a subject as
definite meaning in a sentence (precise meaning) identified and qualified by the nature or qualification
Ex: Ball expressed.
- I played ball this afternoon. Ex. The physician has healed many patients. He did so
- I will go to the ball later tonight. in his capacity as physician.
A sinner cannot be a saint: taking the sinner as such,
According to the Object because sinner and saint are contraries and exclusive of
each other.
1. Logical or Mental – inasmuch as the term stands for
something existing only in the mind as object of its According to the Meaning
consideration.
Ex: Man as species, Man as major term 1. Precise – when the term bears only one meaning in the
proposition.
2. Imaginary – inasmuch as the term means and stands for Ex. I am a Filipino citizen.
an object of the fantasy or imagination.
Ex. Spiderman, The avengers, Jabberwocky 2. Ambiguous – when the term bears several possible
meanings in the sentence.
3. Real – inasmuch as the term means something existing Ex. The UST Medical Team has arrived: it may mean the
in the external world, or something belonging to it. playing team, or the professional team.
Ex. The Republic of the Philippines Although the speaker may have a definite meaning in
mind yet the listener is not sure of it.
4. Metaphorical – inasmuch as the term means an allied
meaning, and not the proper meaning of the term. 3. Proper – when the term stands for its proper object.
Ex. Juan Dela Cruz, Legions of Mary Ex. Rome is a capital of Europe

According to Extension 4. Figurative – when the term stands for another thing that
it suggests.
1. Individual – inasmuch as the term means a definite Ex. Malacanang declared October 31 as a special non-
individual. working holiday.
Ex. The President of the United States of America, The
Pope Rules on Supposition
 Many times the extent of supposition of a term does
2. Universal – inasmuch as the term means distributively not readily appear, as in some of the examples
all the individuals of the same nature or class. given.
Ex. All existential beings are real beings.
Man is the only animal capable of shame. In order to determine the supposition of such terms the
following are some general rules:
3. Particular – inasmuch as the term means only a part of A. The extension of the supposition of the subject
the extension of universal term. must be determined from the precise meaning it
Ex. Some students are bad has in the sentence.
Ex. Man is a corruptible being; means all men
4. Collective – inasmuch as the term means a group, or distributively
individuals as composing a group
Ex. The UST medical team has arrived. B. The predicate in an affirmative proposition,
The flock of birds flew over our house. whether the proposition is universal or
particular, has particular supposition.
Ex. All men are mortal beings, (some of the mortal
beings)
Most women are emotional, (there are also men
who are emotional)
LOGIC
- Exception to this are the instances wherein the 3. Precise – when the sense of the appellation is definite
predicate is the definition of a universal subject, or and clear.
the specific part of its definition, or a specific property Ex. Excellent teachers are assets to the school.
of the universal subject. In such instances, the
predicate has universal supposition. 4. Imprecise – when the sense of the appellation is not
Ex. Man is a rational animal. definite and clear.
Man is an economic animal, (that is, capable of Ex. Poor students are a burden to the school. (It may
economic pursuits) mean financially poor or academically poor)

C. The predicate of a negative proposition, whether - A change in appellation will also surreptitiously introduces
the proposition be universal or particular, has four terms in a syllogism, which apparently employs only three
universal supposition. terms.
Ex. Men are not brutes. (The term “brutes” stands Ex. A good artist is an expert performer.
for all brute animals in the proposition) But, Maria is a good artist (a good person)
Honey and sugar are not dairy products. (The term Therefore, Maria is an expert performer. (it doesn’t
“dairy products” stands for all of them in the necessarily follow)
proposition)

D. A change or shift in the supposition of an

apparently identical term introduces
surreptitiously four conceptual terms in a
syllogism, which apparently employs only three
terms. The syllogism becomes fallacious. A
good syllogism cannot have more than three
conceptual terms.
Ex. Man is a specie; but Pedro is a man (an individual
bearing human nature), therefore, Pedro is a specie.

APPELLATION
Literally means the calling of something. In logic, it means the
function of a term denominating another term.
Denominating term – Appellant
Denominated term – Appellate
Ex. A good teacher (good is appellant, teacher is appellate)

- When an appellating term is applied to a concrete term, it

may affect either:
a. the subject only, as identified by the nature or
qualification expressed
b. the subject as qualifier by the nature or qualification
expressed
Ex. A good carpenter, that is a good man: although may not
be expert in carpentry
A good carpenter, that is a man who is expert in carpentry

Kinds of Appellation

1. Material – when the appellant is applied only to the

subject, as identified by the nature or qualification
expressed.
Ex. A poor philosopher (financially hard up man who is a
philosopher)

2. Formal – when the appellant is applied to the subject as

qualified by the nature or qualification expressed.
Ex. A poor philosopher (one who is not adept in
philosophy)
LOGIC
LESSON 7: The Predicaments and The Predicables 8. PLACE – is an accident that determines the location.
Ex. in Calbayog; in the air. It answer the question,
PREDICAMENTS AND PREDICABLES “where?”
• The predicaments are classifications of universal natures
and concept. Whereas, the predicables are classifications of 9. POSTURE – is an accident which tells the position of part
universal predicates in general. of the body.
• This part is given as an introduction to the next topic on Ex. Standing; to sit down.
definitions. Whenever we attempt to define things, we try to
find out what is the feature that the thing has in common with 10. HABIT – is an accident signifying the coverings of the
other objects so that we may readily disclose the nature of the things that are placed around the body.
thing from such common feature. Then when we proceed to Ex. Clothed; armed. It answers the question “how
look for the feature that distinguishes the thing from other surrounded, equipped or conditions?”
objects and manifests the specific nature that is proper to
the thing. The Predicables
The predicables are the different kinds of logical universals,
The Ten Predicaments that is, universal concepts that may applied to many subjects.
The first predicament is that of Substance. The other nine Taken as classifications, they are universal concepts bearing
predicaments are classifications of the so-called metaphysical different kinds of logical relationship to the subject.
accidents, which are non-essential modification of the
substance. 1. GENUS – a universal term that expresses the essential
feature which a things has in common with other species;
1. SUBSTANCE – is a being that exists by or for itself and Ex. man is an animal. The predicate animal is the genus
does not need any other subject in order to exist. or generic feature which man shares with the brutes.
Ex. Man; house. It answers the question “who or what is
this thing?” 2. SPECIFIC DIFFERENCE – a universal term that
expresses the essential feature which distinguishes the
ACCIDENTS – is anything that cannot exist by itself and must essence of the subject from the essence of other things
be attached to substance. The following as the accidents: with which the subject shares the same genus;
Ex. man is a rational being. Rationality is the essential
2. QUANTITY – an accident which determines the spatial feature which distinguishes the essence or nature of man
extension of a thing in the form of magnitude or multitude. from that of brutes.
Ex. The pole is 10 feet long. It answers the question “how
much or how big?” 3. SPECIES – a universal term that expresses the whole
essence or nature of the subject. It embodies both the
3. QUALITY – is an accident which specifies or genus and the specific difference as constituent or
characterizes a thing. essential features of the subject;
Ex. Intelligent; brave. It answers the question “what sort Ex. man is a RATIONAL – ANIMAL.
of a thing it is?”
4. PROPERTY – a universal term that expresses a feature
4. RELATION – is an accident which logically or really that does not form part of the essence of the subject, but
connects one thing with another. necessarily derives from its essence in an exclusive and
Ex. Fatherhood; taller than. It answers the question “to distinctive manner;
what or to whom does it refer to?” Ex. man is a being capable of education, of wonderment,
of religious sentiment, etc.
5. ACTION – is the motion of the substance commonly - Logically considered, property is not any attribute
inducing a result on doing something in another time. that derives from or goes with the nature of man, e.g.
Ex. Painting; running. It answers the question “what hr is three – fold dimension, mortality, etc.; but only a
doing?” feature that is exclusive of the essential nature of
man and hence derives primarily from his specific
6. PASSION – is the reception of an effect from another. constituent feature (specific difference).
Sometimes, it is called reaction.
Ex. Being heated; being killed. It answers the question 5. ACCIDENT – a universal term that expresses a feature
“what does it do to another?” which is not part of the essence of the subject, not
necessarily connected with it, but is found in the subject
7. TIME – is an accident that measure the duration of mobile only in an accessional or contingent manner;
beings. Ex. Pedro is healthy, handsome or virtuous. Contingent
Ex. Yesterday; at 8:30 am. It answer questions, “when?” means that the feature may be present or may be
absent from the subject.