Legion

life in the Roman army

1 February – 23 June 2024
Exhibition activity cards

Ages KS4
14–16
Bronze cavalry helmet, England, 1st century AD.

© 2024 The Trustees of the British Museum

02/2024
Section 1

Enlisting in the army

Bronze boat prow, Greece, 1 BC – AD 1

Following the assassination of Julius Caesar

in 44 BC, the generals Octavian and Marcus
Antonius split Rome’s provinces between
them (the Second Triumvirate). Octavian
ruled the West and Antonius the East (and
another general Lepidus ruled Africa). Their
relationship became increasingly hostile and
culminated in the Battle of Actium on the
western coast of Greece in 31 BC. Octavian
fought and defeated the combined forces of
Antony and Cleopatra VII (reigned 51–30 BC),
the last pharaoh of an independent Egypt. At
this time Egypt was a ‘client-state’ of Rome,
producing much of the grain needed to feed
the empire. Antony and Cleopatra chose to
commit suicide rather than be captured. Rome
took control of Egypt and it became Octavian’s
personal province. Octavian then became the
frst Roman Emperor, ‘Augustus’.

Mastery of the Mediterranean Sea was vital

for the control and economic success of the
Roman empire. Marines were usually non-
Roman citizens and often recruited from
seafaring nations like Greece, Phoenicia and
Egypt. They faced hazardous sea travel and Discuss
extra chores on land, for the lowliest wages • Why might one of Octavian or Antony’s
of a basic auxiliary soldier. Shore labouring warships have this particular goddess
included roadbuilding and guarding Rome’s on the prow?
grain feet. More dramatic duties involved • Why do you think Octavian and Anthony
policing cities, frefghting and disaster search were unable to continue sharing power?
and rescue. • Do you think Antony and Cleopatra
could have beaten Octavian?
This prow ftting is believed to come from a
scrapped ship that participated in the battle Find
of Actium. Its size suggests that it probably • Objects which incorporate images of
belonged to a ship like a trireme (an oar- gods or goddesses and discuss why
powered wooden ship). The fgure is wearing you think a particular deity was chosen
a Hellenistic Phrygian (a region in present- for that specifc object.
day Turkey) helmet and an aegis (poncho or
breastplate) of the type worn by the ancient
Greek goddess Athena. The fgure is believed
to represent Athena’s Roman counterpart,
Minerva, goddess of wisdom and war.
Section 2

Ranks and roles

Colosseum coin, Rome

The Colosseum, opened in AD 80, was the

largest amphitheatre ever built by the Romans
and seated more than 60,000 people. It
was built by three Flavian emperors, from a
new dynasty which had come to power after
several years of civil unrest. Construction
began in AD 72 under Vespasian (ruled
AD 69–79) and was completed in AD 80 by
his son Titus (ruled AD 79–81). The games
were very closely associated with the power
of the emperor – their success was a way of
winning the support of the Roman people.
Running the games was hugely expensive.
Politicians might offer to pay for the games
to gain people’s votes or favour with the
emperor. Games could last for more than
100 days with the bloody ‘entertainments’
including gladiatorial contests, wild beast
hunts and executions. Gladiators could Discuss
be prisoners of war, enslaved people or • Why was it in the interests of the rulers
convicted criminals, though around half were to keep the population entertained by
freemen who had chosen this profession. staging (often free) events like those
There were numerous amphitheatres in which took place at the Colosseum?
cities all around the Roman empire. • Why did the Flavians choose to build
the Colosseum on this site?
The Colosseum was built on the site of • Why would a freeman choose to become
Emperor Nero’s unpopular Domus Aurea a gladiator?
or Golden Palace which had taken huge • This coin was minted in Rome.
amounts of land away from the people of Why would images of buildings
Rome. It was a remarkable feat of engineering like this appear on coins?
and included underground cages from which
animals could be released and water systems Find
for fooding the arena for naumachia (mock • What other kinds of public buildings or
sea battles). Awnings to protect people from infrastructure did emperors commission
the weather could be pulled over the seating to demonstrate their power and increase
area (by marines). The seating was arranged their popularity with the people? Can you
according to status with the poor, women fnd evidence to support these ideas in
and enslaved people sitting at the very top. the exhibition?
Section 2

Ranks and roles

Bronze cavalry mask in form of an Amazon, Italy, AD 100–200

Like all soldiers in the Roman army, cavalry

men had to buy their own equipment, but
were paid extra to keep a horse. Owning a
horse was prestigious – infantry centurions
and all offcers of noble birth had a ‘mount’.
There were also specialist auxiliary cavalry
units, such as one from North Africa which
was based at Hadrian’s Wall in Britain.

Spectacular, colourful displays of military

horsemanship, weapon drills and sometimes
even mock battles were carried out by these
elite riders. On these prestigious occasions,
which acted as both training session and
entertainment, both men and horses were
dressed in famboyant fnery. This cavalry
parade helmet, representing a woman’s face,
might have been worn at such an event. The
wearer of this mask is re-gendered like a
masked classical actor, probably to represent
an Amazon, one of the race of legendary
female warriors. Along with the Trojans,
the Amazons were used to represent the
‘barbarian other’ in Greek art such as the Discuss
Parthenon sculptures. The Romans saw • Why was being in the cavalry seen to be
themselves as the successors to the ‘civilised’ more prestigious than being in either the
ancient Greeks, adopting many ideas from infantry or the marines? What documentary
ancient Greek art, architecture and culture. evidence can you fnd in the exhibition to
Battles between the ancient Greeks and support this?
Amazons were a common motif in classical • Why do you think it was important for the
art and cavalry sports teams appear to have Romans to re-enact historical and mythical
re-enacted them on the parade ground. battles?
• How would it feel to wear this mask?
How do you think wearing it would help a
cavalryman prepare for an actual battle?

Find
• Other helmets in the exhibition. Look closely
at the designs and evidence of combat to
decide which were likely to be for battle and
which for cavalry sports or military parades.
• The Draco standard, which was also used
for cavalry parades. What do you think the
importance of military standards was?
Section 3

Dressing for battle

Iron sword of Tiberius, Germany

The Roman empire was vast and there was

always the potential for rebellion. The army
was vital for retaining control and quelling any
uprisings. At the beginning of the Imperial
period, under the emperor Augustus, the army
became fully professional and there were
around 30 legions posted all over the empire.
A typical legion had around 5,000 ordinary
legionary soldiers. Legionary soldiers had to
be Roman citizens and they were supported
by a roughly equal number of non-citizen
auxiliary soldiers. Auxiliary soldiers might
have specialist skills such as being skilled
horsemen or archers. They were often
posted far away from their home countries.

This iron sword and its ornate bronze scabbard

was almost certainly commissioned for a
senior offcer to commemorate a victory in
the lengthy and bloody military campaigns in
Germany, where the sword was found. It may
have been an offcial gift or reward. Victory
in these campaigns was essential for the
extension and protection of Rome’s empire. Discuss
• Consider the materials the sword and
The images decorating the scabbard show the scabbard are made from and how they
emperor Tiberius posed as the god Jupiter, have changed or survived over time.
fanked by the gods Victory and Mars Ultor What materials are more likely to survive?
(‘the Avenger’). The general Germanicus What other factors might affect how likely
credits his military victory to the emperor, an object is to survive?
according to strict imperial protocol, as • Why was it important for the generals to
he gives a statuette of victory to Tiberius credit the absent emperor with a victory
(who was also his uncle). The frst emperor in battle? What was this intended to avoid
Augustus is depicted in the roundel below. happening between the generals?
• Why was the scabbard decorated with
these deities and an image of Augustus?

Find
• Other objects within the exhibition which
show how emperors used visual imagery
as propaganda to help build on and extend
their power.
Section 4

Camps and campaigns

Terracotta panel, AD 1–100

The Roman writer Tacitus stated: ‘The booty Discuss

of a city... always falls to the soldiers if it is • Why did the ‘booty’ go to the soldiers
captured, to the offcers if it surrenders.’ The if a city was captured but the offcers
spoils of war, which included people, were if it surrendered?
commonly featured in Roman triumphalist art. • How were people captured by the
Romans after a battle treated?
This terracotta panel shows prisoners being • What effect did parading prisoners of
led through Rome as part of a triumphal war through the streets have on the
parade. They may be prisoners captured prisoners and on those who saw them?
when Romans, under the emperor Trajan, • How do you think Roman citizens were
defeated the Dacians (in present-day meant to feel when viewing images like
Romania) in AD 107, but it is not certain this on the public buildings and monuments
which event this panel refers to. Trajan was that surrounded them in Rome (and cities
born in Roman Spain and was the frst non- across the empire)?
Italian emperor. He was considered one of
the most successful soldier emperors and Find
under his rule the Roman empire grew and • Further depictions of Roman victory in
reached its greatest extent in AD 117. battle. Consider why it would be important
for these images to appear both on large,
monumental objects and small-scale
objects like coins.
Section 5

Fort life

Medusa pendant, Germany, AD 200–300

Decorative personal adornments are common

fnds from Roman forts and can offer insights
into the beliefs of their wearers. Roman
religious beliefs followed those of the ancient
Greeks: they were polytheistic, meaning they
believed in many different gods and that the
gods and spirits ruled every aspect of life –
personal, environmental and cosmological.
The Romans also believed in magic and the
power of charms and amulets to protect them.

This pendant depicts Medusa, the most

famous of the Gorgon ‘monsters’, with
snakes for hair and eyes that could turn
anyone looking at her to stone. She is
shown in a round frame which may be
an allusion to Athena’s shield, which was
decorated with the head of Medusa.
Medusa’ head was also shown on the
breastplate worn by an enormous gold and
ivory statue of the goddess Athena which
stood in the ancient Greek Parthenon.

The material (jet) and craftwork are British Discuss

– and the jet came from Whitby beach in • Why would Medusa feature on a protective
Yorkshire. Jet can be easily carved and has amulet when she was seen as a mythical
a particularly unusual physical property: ‘monster’?
it is electrostatic. Handling jet produces a • Why did Roman imagery often refer back to
static charge, which may have attracted the ancient Greek stories, art and architecture?
hair or textile fbres of its owner, particularly • What other magical/belief practices did the
when rubbed. The face of this pendant is Romans use to try and protect themselves
worn smooth, probably from where it had or their families and homes – or to gain
been rubbed by ancient hands. This effect, power over or punish their enemies?
combined with the mythological imagery,
made for a powerful amulet – a magical Find
object designed to protect its user from • Other personal, non-military, items which
supernatural harm, offering luck or protection. have been found in a Roman fort. What do
these help us understand about life for the
people living there?
Section 5

Fort life

Rudge cup (replica)

This is a replica of a small bronze cup which

has lost its handle, found in a well on the site
of a Roman villa. In forts and camp soldiers
cooked and ate meals communally in their
section, of eight men. A trulla (handled
drinking cup) like this was essential equipment
and used like a ladle to dip into well buckets
or streams. This cup is unusually ornate and
was probably made as a souvenir. It shows
a schematised drawing of Hadrian’s Wall
and is inscribed with names of the fve forts
lying along or associated with the Western
part of Hadrian’s Wall – MAIS (present-
day Bowness-on-Solway), ABALLAVA Discuss
(Burgh-by-Sands), VXELODUM (Stanwix), • Why did auxiliary units often serve
CAMBOGLANS (Castlesteads), BANNA away from their home territories?
(Birdoswald). Originally the design was • What does the decoration of this cup,
picked out in coloured enamels, as can be and where it was found, suggest about its
seen on the handle displayed alongside it use and who it was made for/owned by?
from another trulla, which is decorated with • What were the similarities and differences
enamelled images of hares and hounds. between being a Roman legionary soldier
and an auxiliary soldier? Find documentary
Hadrian’s Wall, commissioned by Emperor evidence in the exhibition to support your
Hadrian (ruled AD 117–138) after his visit to ideas.
Britain in AD 122, was a continuous defensive
barrier that guarded the north-western frontier Find
of the province from ‘barbarian’ invaders. It • Objects in the exhibition which help us fnd
extended from coast to coast, running for out more about daily life in the Roman army.
118 kilometres (73 miles) from Segedunum • A similar cup being used on the imaginifer’s
(Wallsend) on the River Tyne in the east, to daughter’s tombstone.
Bowness on the Solway Firth in the west.
Many of the troops stationed in Britain were
auxiliary soldiers who came from all over
the empire. An altar inscription tells us that
a North African cavalry unit, (the numerus
Maurorum Aurelianorum), was based in
Britain at Aballava, at the western end of
Hadrian’s Wall, between AD 200 and 400.
The unit was probably brought over by
the emperor Septimius Severus (reigned
AD 193 –211), himself a North African.
Section 7

Leaving the army

Diploma of discharge, Egypt, 8 September AD 79

Regular pay and social status proved

attractive incentives for potential new recruits
to join the Roman army. Free (unenslaved)
people from all over the empire enlisted.
Serving alongside men from unfamiliar
cultures, soldiers were often posted far
from home to places unknown to them.

This bronze diploma confrms the formal

discharge from the Egypt-based feet of a
rower, Marcus Papirius. The diploma had to
be signed by seven witnesses and sealed.
It was awarded on the 8 September AD
79 (incidentally the year Mount Vesuvius
erupted and buried the city of Pompeii).

For the 50% of those fortunate enough

to survive illness and injury after 25 years’
service (26 for marines), the rewards Discuss
of honourable discharge and social • Why was the diploma made from bronze?
transformation awaited. Legionaries or • Why did a person have to serve the full
citizen-soldiers received a lucrative bonus number of years to get their diploma
upon retirement – a pension worth a decade’s and citizenship?
pay. For auxiliaries, like Papirius, although • Why did only the citizen soldiers or
they did not receive a similar fnancial reward, legionaries receive a fnancial bonus
a fundamental change of status awaited on retiring?
as Roman citizenship gave them and their • Why were soldiers encouraged to save
children rights and privileges in law, taxes and money for their retirement? What happened
property. Once a father earned citizenship, to their savings if they left before completing
his sons, armed with good references, could their time in service?
seek to join the elite legions of the army.
The diploma also granted citizenship to Find
Papirius’s wife and their son, Carpinius. • Evidence for the benefts received by both
legionary and auxiliary soldiers who made
it to retirement.
• The remains of a less fortunate soldier who
probably died at Herculaneum (also buried
by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius) within
weeks of the creation of this diploma?