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    What Is Discourse

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    Safi Ullah

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    What Is Discourse

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    Safi Ullah
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    What is Discourse

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    What Is Discourse

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    Safi Ullah

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    of 5

    What is “discourse”?

    IN LINGUISTICS, A UNIT OF LANGUAGE LONGER THAN A SINGLE SENTENCE IS


    CALLED DISCORSE.

    A Continious stretch of language (written or spoken) larger than a sentence.

    ACCORDING TO COOK •"Novels,as well as short conversation or might be


    equally rightfully named discourses."

    Where from the word Discourse came?

    Originally the word "Discourse" comes from Latin ‘discursus’ which denotes
    'conversation or speech.

    DEFINITION OF DISCOURSE

    1. Archaic : the capacity of orderly thought or procedure : rationality


    2. verbal interchange of ideas; especially : conversation
    3. formal and orderly and usually extended expression of thought on a
    subject
    4. connected speech or writing
    5. A linguistic unit (as a conversation or a story) larger than a sentence 6:
    6. obsolete: social familiarity
    7. A mode of organizing knowledge, ideas, or experience that is rooted in
    language.

    THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE.

    Specific maxims • Grice presented 4 maxims in the form of guidelines for how to
    communicate successfully.
    Maxim of Quantity. Make your contribution as informative as is required.
    Maxim of Quality. Try to make your contribution one that is true.
    Relation. Be relevant
    Maxim of manner: Be clear. Avoid ambiguity.

    Features of Discourse:

    1. Cohesion 2.Coherence

    Cohesion means links and ties with in the text.


    Coherence in linguistics means links that make a text semantically meaningful.

    Link in discourse studies


    Link in discourse studies are divided in to two groups: 1.FORMAL.
    2.CONTEXTUAL.

    Formal- which refers to fact that are present in the analyzed text.
    Contextual – referring to the outside world, the knowledge which is not included
    in the communicative product itself.

    Types of cohesive devices.

    Five types of cohesive devices are given below: 1 Substitution: 2 Ellipsis: 3


    Reference: 4 Conjunction: 5 Lexical cohesion:

    Substitution. In speaking and in writing, we try to avoid repeating words, phrases


    or clauses. We use substitute forms to do this.

    My axe is too blunt. I must get a sharper one.

    Ellipsis. It is omission of noun, verb or a clause on the assumption that it is


    understood from the linguistic context.

    Teacher: Go. Student: ok.

    Reference. The use of words which do not have meanings of their own, such as
    pronouns and articles.

    Denzi: "How do you like my new car?" Marry: "It is a nice car, which I am also
    thinking of buying".

    Conjunction. Specifies the relationship between clauses or sentences.

    Ali could not go to school because he was sick.

    Lexical cohesion. Lexical cohesion refers to the ties created between lexical
    elements, such as words groups, and phrases. (Halliday 537).

    Difference between discourse and text analysis.

    Discourse analysis focuses on the structure of naturally spoken language as


    found in conversation interviews, commentaries and speeches.

    Text analysis focuses on the structure of written language as found in such texts
    as essays, notices, road signs and chapters.

    Seven criteria of discourse.


    1) Cohesion. 2) Coherence. 3) Intentionality. 4) Acceptability. 5) Informativeness.
    6) Situationality. 7) Intertextuality.

    Cohesion. Grammatical relationship between parts of a sentence essential for its


    interpretation.

    Coherence. The order of statements relates one another by sense.

    Intentionality. The message has to be conveyed.

    Acceptability. Indicates that the communicative product needs to be


    satisfactory in that the audience approves it.

    Informativeness. Some new information has to be included in the discourse.

    Situationality. Circumtances are important in which the remark is made.

    Intertextuality. Reference to the world outside the text or the interpreters


    schemata.

    Types of Discourse. 1. Written discourse 2. Spoken discourse

    The distinction between speech and writing is often referred to as channel (D.
    Hymes) or medium.
    Distinction between Written and Spoken Discourse

    Spoken and written discourse differ for many reasons. Spoken discourse has to
    be understood immediately; written discourse can be referred to many times.

    General Differences

    1. Grammatical intricacy 2. Lexical density 3. Nominalization 4. Explicitness


    5. Spontaneity 6. Repetition and hesitations.

    Grammatical Intricacy. Sentences in spoken discourse are short and simple,


    whereas they are longer and more complex in written discourse.

    Lexical Density. Spoken discourse is less lexically dense than written discourse.
    Content words tend to be spread out over a number of clauses, whereas they
    seem to be tightly packed into individual clauses.

    Nominalization. The use of a verb as a noun. Written discourse has a high level of
    nominalization: i.e. more nouns than verbs e.g. movement (from move) reaction
    (from react)
    Explicitness. It means something which is stated more clearly and in detailed.
    Writing is more explicit than speech. Spoken is more doubtful.

    Spontaneity. Written discourse is organized and less spontaneous whereas


    Spoken discourse contains more uncompleted and reformulated sentences. we
    can change the topic in spoken discourse.

    Repetition and Hesitation. a. Spoken discourse contains more repetition and


    hesitations, b. Spoken discourse has many pauses and fillers, such as ‘hhh’, ‘er’
    and ‘you know’.

    CATEGORIES of Discourse.

    Some of the important categories of discourse are given below. 1. Narrative


    2.Exposition 3. Descriptive 4. Argumentative 5. Process 6. Exemplification 7.
    Cause and Effect

    Narrative discourse means stories, folktales, novels, dramas, and even narrative
    long poems such as epics. These include short stories, novels, and stage plays.

    Descriptive discourse has a great deal of description, often through using the
    five senses so that a reader has a fuller idea of what a thing is.

    Argumentative discourse is based on logic and philosophy, and also includes


    speeches and papers.

    Process discourse includes a process of making something or doing something.


    These include manuals and recipes.

    Cause and Effect category includes essays where causes and effects of things
    are discussed, such as scientific journals.

    What is Discourse analysis?

    Discourse analysis is sometimes defined as the analysis of language 'beyond the


    sentence.

    How many meanings language have?

    Language have two types of meanings 1.Surface meaning. 2. Deep meaning.

    Surface meaning refers to what is explicitly said and Deep meaning refers to
    what is implied.
    Discourse is dependent on both semantics as well as pragmatics.

    Origins of Discourse analysis

    The first modern linguist who commenced the study of relation of sentences and
    coined the name discourse analysis which afterwards denoted a branch of
    applied linguistics, was Zellig Harris. A significant contribution to the evolution
    of discourse analysis has been made by British and American scholars.

    Interpreting Discourse. Conversation and its forms & structure.

    Example. Written text in English which appears to break rules of English


    language

    Different people interpret with different methods.

    Whatever appears to us should be interpreted as it said.

    Context or background knowledge.

    Context & background gives clear interpretation.

    Context plays important role in the discourse interpretation.

    Factors which need attention when we receive message. (Paralinguistic


    features).

    Face to face interaction.

    Quality of voice

    Written message. Receiver’s relationship with participants.

    somehow discourse is impossible without context.

    Thanks

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