Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Energy recovery systems for retrofitting in internal combustion engine

vehicles: A review of techniques
Alejandro Gabriel-Buenaventura a, Brian Azzopardi a,b,c,n
a
Faculty of Technology, Design and Environment, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University,
Wheatley, Oxford OX331HX, United Kingdom
b
Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology (MCAST), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, MCAST Main Campus,
Triq Kordin, Paola PLA 9032, Malta
c
Brian Azzopardi & Associates Consulting Firm, Birkirkara, Malta

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Energy recovery systems (ERSs) for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) are reviewed in the
Received 8 October 2013 context of fuel efficiency improvement and retrofit capabilities. The paper presents technical knowledge
Received in revised form on the potential benefits that retrofitted ERSs may achieve in carbon emissions reduction. A first
31 July 2014
distinction of ERSs is made between the sources of the energy and further sub-divided on the technique
Accepted 31 August 2014
to harvest and store the energy. A critical evaluation is performed on the associated characteristics such
as weight, size and cost. Finally, the paper summarizes the ERSs technologies under a number of
Keywords: common criteria, and finds out, that the most effective ERSs in terms of fuel efficiency are the ones more
Energy recovery system (ERS) difficult to retrofit. Further research is suggested to investigate the trade-off between fuel consumption
Kinetic energy recovery system (KERS)
reduction and investment cost of the system.
Thermal energy recovery system (TERS)
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Internal combustion engine (ICE)
Electric vehicle (EV)
Efficiency

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
1.1. The market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
1.2. The sensitive HEVs and BEVs role on GHG reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
1.3. Lifetime of vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
1.4. Retrofitting ERSs, a short to medium-term opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
1.5. The ideal ERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
1.6. Aim of this review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
2. Energy recovery systems techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
2.1. Energy recovery from exhaust gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
2.1.1. Thermal energy recovery systems (TERSs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
2.1.2. Kinetic energy recovery from exhaust gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
2.2. Energy recovery from vertical oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
2.3. Energy recovery from vehicle inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
2.3.1. Spring and elastomers KERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
2.3.2. Pneumatic and hydraulic vehicle inertia KERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
2.3.3. Flywheel KERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
2.3.4. Electric KERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: brian.azzopardi@mcast.edu.mt, brian.azzopardi@ieee.org (B. Azzopardi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.08.083
1364-0321/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
956 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964

3. Comparison of ERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963

4. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963

1. Introduction support schemes as well as the technology promise of fuel cell

vehicles (FCVs), their world market penetration will not be
Energy recovery systems (ERSs) for automotive applications are significant in the short and medium terms. This is illustrated in
defined as the techniques to recover the energy of the vehicle that Fig. 1, showing the sales forecast for passenger light duty vehicles
otherwise would have been wasted. The recovered energy can be (LDVs) under the International Energy Agency (IEA) BLUE Map
stored and then used when necessary, reducing the need for scenario and based on a 50% fuel efficiency improvement by 2050
further energy source or fuel, and therefore improving the overall over 2005 levels. EVs and FCVs would not be majority in the
efficiency of the vehicle. ERSs may be applied in a vast range of vehicle parc, the population of vehicles on the road, until 2065–70
technologies within powertrains for automotive industry. It is only considering a realistic LDV lifetime of 15–20 years [12].
ERSs that potentially offer short and medium term solutions to the In addition, major markets such as in the EU and the United
problem of vehicle population growth and the associated emis- States (US), new vehicle sales figures are not expected to increase
sions. Within the European Union (EU), emissions from road significantly while second hand vehicle market is on the rise. In
transport are estimated 23% of the total CO2 levels. To reduce car the EU the vehicle parc increased but sales fell short since 2007 [13].
pollution, the EU has set targets for average CO2 tailpipe emissions This would allow a greater impact in emissions on the current
at 130 and 95 gCO2/km for 2015 and 2020, respectively. However, vehicle parc and motivation towards retrofit systems to enhance
with the 2009 average actual tailpipe CO2 emissions at 145.7 gCO2/ efficiency in the sector.
km, there are challenges in retrofitting, cost and impact on the
whole vehicle system and within the transport system [1,2].
1.2. The sensitive HEVs and BEVs role on GHG reductions

1.1. The market Life cycle analyses (LCAs) for vehicle technologies have mostly
taken the full approach from cradle to grave. That is, taking into
The field of energy recovery (ER) has been the subject of account not only the emissions related to the use of the vehicles
research and innovation in patents since the 1970s [3–5]. However, but also the associated emissions to manufacturing and disposing.
the automotive industry has normally focused in more traditional A common approach in these studies for the life cycle impact
fields to enhance the fuel efficiency of vehicles, such as engine assessment (LCIA) method is the quantification of the equivalent
efficiency or aerodynamics. It is only in recent years that manu- green house gas (GHG) emissions, which are a measure for global
facturers have realized that ERSs present a cost-effective alter- warming potential (GWP). These LCA studies have demonstrated
native to improve efficiency, and therefore the potential benefits of that the potential benefits of HEVs and BEVs over conventional
those systems are being fully developed. ICEVs depend on a number of variables, and in particular cases
In fact, ERSs are currently found in some vehicle models, they may not demonstrate a clear advantage [14–17].
regardless of the type of powertrain. Manufacturers such as LCA studies have shown that GHG emissions associated to the
BMW and Renault already integrated ERSs in internal combustion manufacturing process are higher in HEVs than in ICEVs. However,
engine vehicles (ICEVs) [6,7]. On the other hand, hybrid electric this difference may be offset during the usage phase of the vehicle,
vehicles (HEVs) such as Toyota Prius and battery electric vehicles attributed to the increased fuel efficiency of HEVs. For instance, for
(BEVs) such as Nissan Leaf already feature kinetic energy recovery a typical HEV at an annual mileage of 10,000 km, it would require
systems (KERSs) within their powertrain also known as regenera- 5 years to offset the extra GHG emissions associated with manu-
tive braking technique [8,9]. In an automotive industry clearly facturing over the ICEV, which may be achievable for an average
focused on efficiency gains, the increasing number of new vehicles driver [14,15]. However, if an existing ICEV, that has a residual
performing ERSs highlights the benefits obtained by this technique value, is replaced by an HEV, the offset period would increase up to
in terms of energy usage. 14 years due to all the manufacturing emissions.
In the United Kingdom the financial incentives for alternative BEVs have shown even higher GHG emissions associated to the
vehicles have doubled the sales for HEVs from 2007 to 2012. manufacturing process than HEVs, which requires a greater offset
However, the market share has only been rising slowly from 0.7% [14,15]. However, emissions associated to the usage phase of BEVs
to 1.3% [10], while BEVs have shown even more marginal results strongly depend on how the electricity is produced. For instance,
[11]. In spite of the increased sales of EVs and associated financial a BEV sourced with low-carbon electricity, such as renewable

Fig. 1. IEA market forecast [12].

 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964 957

energy, shows a far lower GWP value than conventional ICEVs, but [24]. However, contrary to these dual-objective scheme, studies
on the other hand, coal-based electricity production would make have found that actually extending the lifetime of vehicles could
ICEVs and HEVs to perform similar or even better in terms of GWP lead to improve the economy and diminish both energy use and
than BEVs [15,18,19]. At the current situation of energy production, carbon emissions [25,26].
with many countries relying on fossil fuels, such as 77% in the
United States and 71% in the United Kingdom the advantage of
BEVs in terms of GWP may become questionable [19]. The future 1.4. Retrofitting ERSs, a short to medium-term opportunity
evolution of electricity production to low-carbon sources suggests
that BEVs and other plug-in HEVs could improve their values of With the increased vehicle parc, it is undeniable that the way
GWP. However the transformation of the energy sector will not forward is through transport electrification. The deployment of
occur in the short term. EVs in the medium term will reduce carbon emissions as long as
In addition, the deployment of EVs brings along other the shift is produced naturally, allowing existing vehicles to finish
issues. Batteries and motors use new rare-earth elements (REEs). their expected life span. In the long term, the increase of less
The increased exploitation of these REEs can be political and carbon-intensive electricity production could allow BEVs to
environmentally challenging [20–22]. And, the proposed manda- achieve further reduced values of GWP. However, according to
tory EU targets for charging stations at each member state have vehicle sales forecasts, the dominance of ICEVs in the vehicle parc
also increased pressure on the infrastructure [23]. is here to stay until around 2065.
Therefore, the retrofitting low-cost ERSs is a short to medium
term opportunity, allowing existing vehicle parc to increase
1.3. Lifetime of vehicles efficiency and extend its lifetime which will contribute to the
reduction of GHG without significant investment and within a
Life span of vehicles, currently averaged around 13 years, is an short period of time.
important variable in GWP calculation. The most carbon-intensive
processes in the life of a vehicle are fabrication and usage phase
[15,16]. The latter is directly related with the mileage, which in 1.5. The ideal ERS
turn is linked with the life span of the car.
Nowadays, triggered by the economic downfall in automotive From the technical perspective, an ideal ERS should harvest the
industry, it became common practice in policies to encourage the energy from a plentiful source and perform a high ratio of energy
replacement of existing vehicles for more modern and efficient recovery. Ideally, the energy has to be harvested continuously, and
ones. Normally a dual objective is pursued (i) to stimulate the the efficiency gain has to be significant in all driving conditions.
economy and (ii) to diminish the emissions. These support Hence the ERS should be able to store all the potentially recover-
schemes tend to shorten the average life span of the vehicle parc able energy and released back this energy stored efficiently.

Fig. 2. Classification of ERSs for automotive applications.

958 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964

In addition, it should not add significant weight or space 2.1.1.1. Thermoelectric TERS. These systems use a thermoelectric
requirements. It should use as much existing parts as possible, generator module (TGM) to produce electricity from the waste
and if new components were necessary, they should be inexpen- heat released through the exhaust [29,30]. This TGM unit can be
sive, recyclable, non-toxic and low energy embedded. Ultimately, placed in the engine bay or in the middle section of the exhaust.
it should be easy to retrofit, with no major modifications needed The power produced, estimated around 700 W, can be used to feed
for the implementation of the system. the electrical auxiliaries of the vehicle or to charge the battery.
Fig. 3(a) illustrates the operation of a thermoelectric TERS. Studies
have demonstrated fuel efficiency improvements up to 10%
1.6. Aim of this review
[30,31]. BMW TGM may be available in 2018 [32]. Ford's version
is shown in Fig. 3(b) [33].
The aim of this paper is to provide the reader with an extensive
Due to the physical layout of the TGM TERSs, which involves
overview of the ERSs for ICEVs. Special attention is given to the
heat transfer from exhaust to coolant, there are additional indirect
accurate classification of the different systems and to the suit-
benefits such as fast engine warm up and downsizing of the
ability of a given technique for retrofitting. This review will
exhaust. On the other hand, the system requires a higher complex-
provide insight into the use of ERSs, as well as awareness about
ity of the exhaust/coolant configuration, an oversized radiator, an
the potential benefits of a retrofit system. It is expected this will
increased weight and greater space, which makes a retrofit version
inspire individuals, business and policy makers to allow deploy-
difficult to apply. This technique may increase as well the back
ment of these ERSs to enhance efficiency in transport and conse-
pressure of the exhaust, which tends to reduce the performance of
quently contribute towards GHG emissions reduction.
the engine [31,34].
The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2, the ERS
techniques are classified and are discussed extensively. Key find-
ings are summarized in Section 3. Finally, in Section 4, the main
2.1.1.2. Rankine cycle TERS. This system uses a Rankine cycle to
conclusions are presented.
convert the thermal energy in the exhaust into mechanical energy.
The heat of the exhaust increases the temperature of a fluid until
it boils. As a consequence, a steam is produced which is used
2. Energy recovery systems techniques to power a turbine. The energy provided by the turbine is in
mechanical form, so it can be used to generate electricity or to
In the present review article, ERSs are firstly classified accord- deliver torque to the powertrain, as shown in Fig. 4. A number of
ing to the source of energy to be recovered: (i) energy from configurations have been proposed, including single and dual loop
exhaust gases, (ii) energy from vertical oscillations of the body and cycles and different fluids [29,35,36].
(iii) energy from vehicle inertia as shown in Fig. 2. Following the Honda and BMW are major manufacturers developing Rankine
first classification, the techniques are further sub-classified accord- cycle TERSs. BMW have claimed that the definitive version will
ing to type of energy recovered, storage and technology. weigh no more than 15 kg. Average gains in fuel consumption are
estimated from 10% to 15% [29,36].
2.1. Energy recovery from exhaust gases The need of interchangers, condensers, evaporator, turbines
and piping, along with their interaction with the existing parts of
In an internal combustion engine (ICE), exhaust gases are the vehicle add complexity to this ERS technique. This fact,
released at high temperature and velocity. Thus, ERSs based on together with the additional space required, makes a retrofit
this energy source may further aim for thermal energy recovery or option difficult to implement.
kinetic energy recovery. The fact that the exhaust gases are
released continuously means that the energy can be recovered
all the time the engine is working. 2.1.2. Kinetic energy recovery from exhaust gases
During the operation of an ICE, gases at high velocity are
released through the exhaust. Part of the kinetic energy (KE)
2.1.1. Thermal energy recovery systems (TERSs) contained in these gases can be recovered by a turbine generator
An ICE continuously releases about two-thirds of the energy (TG) and converted into electrical energy [37]. These ERSs are
contained in the fuel as heat [27,28]. TERSs recover part of this normally termed as Electric Turbo Compound (ETC) [38,39],
heat so the energy can be stored and reused. In TERSs, the energy although because of the thermal phenomena some studies still
recovery may be achieved by two technologies using classify this type of technique as TERS [36,39]. Fig. 5 shows the
(i) thermoelectric generator and (ii) Rankine cycle. layout of an ETC ERS (a) and an ETC prototype (b) from [40].

Fig. 3. (a) TGM TERSs layout. The energy of the vehicle comes from the fuel. The engine turns part of this energy into useful mechanical energy to the wheels, but a great
amount is lost as a heat in the exhaust. The TGM converts part of this wasted thermal energy into electricity, feeding the electrical consumers of the vehicle (load) or
charging the battery. (b) Ford TERS proposed system, placing the TGM in the middle section of the exhaust.
 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964 959

Fig. 4. (a) Rankine cycle TERSs layout. The thermal energy lost through the exhaust is used to heat a fluid in an interchanger. The steam produced powers a turbine, which
aids the engine to propel the car. Steam is further condensed to continue the Rankine cycle. (b) Single loop Rankine cycle illustrated. (c) BMW's system in test vehicle,
adapted from [29].

Fig. 5. (a) ERS ETC layout. Waste exhaust gases reach the TG unit from the engine. Part of the kinetic energy of the gases is recuperated for the unit and converted into
electrical energy. This electrical energy is then used to feed the consumers of the vehicle (load) or to charge the battery. (b) An ETC prototype [40].

Fig. 6. (a) Layout of ERS from vertical oscillations. Part of the KE of the vertical movements of the body is recovered by the RSA, placed next to the wheels. RSA transform this
energy into electricity, which is used to feed the electrical loads of the vehicle or to charge the battery. (b) RSA fitted in a vehicle for testing.

Simulations of ETCs have shown fuel efficiency improvements have already prototypes in advanced stage of development, which
of around 5%, although under specific conditions, a decrease claims a more efficient generation of electricity than the conven-
in efficiency of 1% may occur [39]. Companies, such as CPOWERT, tional alternator found in an ICEV. It is expected that ETC will be
960 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964

available in 2016 [41]. The power of the CPOWERT ETC is 6 kW,

weights 6 kg and length is 150 mm. Due to the high working
temperatures, the liquid cooling system is necessary [40]. The
main obstacle for a retrofit version might be the integration of the
TG with the exhaust and cooling system of the vehicle.

2.2. Energy recovery from vertical oscillations

Part of the KE associated with the vertical oscillations of the

vehicle body during driving, such as bumping, can be recovered
with regenerative shock absorbers (RSAs). RSAs transform the KE Fig. 9. Configuration of a hydraulic KERS [51]. Under deceleration, the pump stores
the fluid at high pressure in the accumulators. When needed, power is released
into electricity, which may be used for the electrical auxiliaries or
back from the accumulators to the wheels through the hydraulic drive assembly.
stored in the battery. Fig. 6(a) illustrates a typical layout of the Pump is driven by the powertrain.
system. Different technologies have been proposed for the RSA,
including specific configurations for retrofitting purposes. Proto-
types have been already tested. The average improvement in the be applied to overcome the inertia of the vehicle. This is normally
vehicle efficiency recorded ranges from 2% to 10% [33,42–44]. done by the braking system, which reduces the speed of the vehicle
Parameters of influence for the efficiency of this ERS technique by converting part of its KE into waste heat in the brakes. However, a
are the type of vehicle and road. In this way, heavy vehicles and fraction of that KE can be recuperated and stored. This stored energy
rough surfaces seem advantageous. The rate of energy recovered may be used again, normally under acceleration, thus reducing high
ranges from 100 to 400 W for a LDV, although for heavy duty demands on the engine and consequently lowering fuel consump-
vehicles (HDVs) it could be 25 times higher [42]. Fig. 6(b) shows an tion. ERSs based on vehicle inertia are termed as kinetic energy
RSA fitted in a test vehicle. recovery systems (KERSs). As these systems recover the energy
This technique presents good characteristics for retrofitting in mainly during braking events, the process of energy recovery is
any vehicle and the potential savings in fuel are significant. termed regenerative braking (RB).
However, the need to fit more than one shock absorber, one per There are different types of KERS, with variations in recovery and
wheel, and the replacement intervals these components are storage technologies. However, all KERSs share the same advantage
subjected at, may have a negative impact in the cost. In addition, and disadvantage. The advantage is that due to the great weight and
the nature of the energy source could make the system more speed of LDVs, they have associated a high momentum. Therefore, a
appropriate for off-road conditions and trucks rather than LDVs. great amount of energy can be potentially recovered. The disadvan-
tage is that the energy is not recoverable continuously, but during
2.3. Energy recovery from vehicle inertia short periods, typically during braking events. This fact makes the
gains obtained by these systems sensitive to driving conditions.
The most common source of energy recovery is the inertia of the Urban driving, with frequent decelerations, is a favorable condition,
vehicle due to its speed. When deceleration is needed, a force has to as opposed to motorway driving. Fig. 7 shows a diagram illustrating
the working principle of a KERS.

2.3.1. Spring and elastomers KERS

Spring and elastomer KERS store the energy during RB as
potential elastic energy. This is done by elastically deforming an
elastomer or metallic spring. They can go back to their initial shape
when power is needed, releasing part of the absorbed energy.
In order to regulate the energy transfer, a continuous variable
transmission (CVT) may be required [45–47]. The volume of
elastomer needed has been estimated around 45 l [47,48]. Simula-
Fig. 7. KERS general layout. The engine transforms part of the fuel energy into tions carried out in a spring KERS performing CVT and capable of
mechanical energy to the wheels. As a consequence, the vehicle moves, therefore storing 30 kJ have achieved a potential fuel efficiency improve-
having a KE associated. A fraction of this KE can be recovered and stored, mainly ment of 15% [46]. A typical configuration of the system is
during braking events. In turn, the energy stored can be released back, which is
illustrated in Fig. 8.
normally done during acceleration.
The operation of this type of KERS is purely mechanical,
therefore there are no losses associated to energy conversion.
Moreover, the energy can be stored for a longer duration. On the
other hand, they need a significant space to be fitted, and they
typically require a CVT, which adds complexity and weight to the
system. There is a lack of recent literature on the topic.

2.3.2. Pneumatic and hydraulic vehicle inertia KERS

In these systems, the KE of the vehicle is stored by increasing
the pressure of a fluid. In a pneumatic type, air is stored in tanks
whereas, in a hydraulic system, a non-compressible fluid is stored
in accumulators. The energy is released back to the powertrain by
decreasing the pressure of the fluid. Fig. 9 shows a design for a
Fig. 8. Configuration of an elastomer KERS [45]. The elastomer is located between
engine and driven wheels. A CVT unit controls the energy transfer. The drawing on
hydraulic type.
the right illustrates the deformation of the elastomer as it stores energy. Process is Simulations of a pneumatic KERS with 400 kJ of energy storage
reverted when energy is released. have shown a maximum fuel efficiency improvement of 25%. In
 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964 961

Fig. 10. (a) Main components of a Volvo flywheel KERS [56]. Under deceleration, the energy comes from the driveshaft (connected to the wheels) to the flywheel module.
The speed and energy stored by the flywheel is controlled for a CVT. Reverse process for acceleration. Energy is always in mechanical form. (b) Flywheel KERS installed in a
test-car.

the same way, a hydraulic KERS with 90 kJ of energy storage has 2.3.4.1. Strong/mild electric KERS. These systems are utilized in the
demonstrated up to 35% increase in fuel efficiency [49]. For a current generation of HEVs. Different configurations of the system
pneumatic type, it has been estimated that a 1-ton vehicle would are illustrated in Fig. 11. In a “strong” or “full” HEV, like the Toyota
require a storage tank of 30 l [50]. Prius, Fig. 11(a), the energy recovered during RB by the MG is
These systems present a great potential for fuel reduction and stored in a large battery pack. The MG provides torque to aid the
the cost is potentially lower than electric based systems [50]. engine and even it is able to propel the car on its own at low speed
However, the additional space and added weight of tanks and [57]. There are losses associated to the energy transformation path
accumulators make this KERS option more suitable for heavy (mechanical–electric–chemical) from the wheels to the battery
vehicles rather than LDV. In addition, they may require major and vice-versa, which reduce the efficiency of the technique.
modifications in the powertrain, making them difficult to retrofit. However, these systems are able to achieve up to 40% fuel
improvement [53]. The cost of the batteries, complexity, weight,
and space constraints makes this method difficult to retrofit.
2.3.3. Flywheel KERS A mild version of this system consists of smaller batteries and
This technique stores the KE of the vehicle as rotational energy less powered MG. There are two main different configurations for
by increasing the angular velocity of a flywheel. Fuel consumption mild KERS. The first configuration is known as integrated, as the
reductions from 20% to 30% are potentially achievable. However, MG is integrated between engine and gear box, as shown in
the energy recovered cannot be permanently stored, due to the Fig. 11(b). The second configuration is known as a belted type, as
friction on the flywheel. To develop its full potential the system the MG generator is belt-driven by the engine. In this case the MG
may need a CVT, a composite flywheel spinning at 60,000 revolu- is located as an ancillary on the side of the engine, substituting
tions per minute (rpm), vacuum chamber and magnetic bearings. the alternator of the vehicle, as shown in Fig. 11(c). Fuel
These are high-technology components which increase the cost improvements over 10% are achievable with belted mild electric
and complexity of the system. In spite of that, flywheel techniques KERS [58] which at the same time presents good retrofitting
are claimed to be cheaper than an equivalent electric KERS. The characteristics, as a result of its location. Integrated mild KERS
total weight is around 65 kg for a 1800 kg vehicle. Average values may achieve up to 22% fuel improvement [59], but due to the
for power and energy storage of the system are around 60 kW and integrated design, a retrofit version involves high cost and
580 kJ respectively [53–55]. Fig. 10 shows the configuration of a complexity.
flywheel KERS and a unit installed in a testing vehicle [56].
Flywheel KERSs have already been well proven in motorsport,
namely in Formula 1. A number of major car manufacturers, 2.3.4.2. Alternator-control KERS. Alternator-control KERS technique,
such as Jaguar and Volvo, are currently developing this technology shown in Fig. 12, manages the alternator of the vehicle in a more
for LDV, which could be on production by 2015. While a retrofit efficient way than conventional systems. Typically, the alternator
version is technically possible, size and weight restraints, cost and output is increased during braking events, using the KE of the
complexity could make it more suitable for heavy vehicles. Despite vehicle to maximize the energy storage in the battery and feed the
the number of companies developing this system, the preference electrical consumers. During acceleration, the alternator output is
of vehicle manufacturers for electric KERS to develop their hybrid reduced and the consumers are fed by the energy stored in the
models suggest that the potential advantages of this technique are battery. Therefore the engine power demand is reduced and fuel
not easy to realize [54]. is saved.
Main manufacturers such as BMW and Renault currently offer this
system in a number of models [6,7], and a retrofit version has been
2.3.4. Electric KERS already proposed [60]. Efficiency improvement ranges from 1% to 5%
Electric KERS turn part of the KE of the vehicle into electricity [6,61,62]. The technique allows the use of standard components, but
by means of a motor-generator (MG), and store it in batteries. They special monitoring of the battery among other parameters is needed
can be divided into two main groups: strong/mild electric KERS for an accurate management of the system [63]. Fig. 12(b) shows an
and alternator-control based KERS. Intelligent Battery Sensor (IBS), used for this task.
962 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964

Fig. 11. Different configurations of strong/Mild Electric KERS. Strong/Mild Electric KERSs (a) Strong/full, (b) mild integrated and (c) mild belted. In all cases the working
principle is the same. KE energy is recuperated from the drive train by the MG, which is stored in batteries. When the energy is needed the process is reverted.

Fig. 12. (a) Alternator-control KERS layout. The KE of the vehicle is used for the alternator to produce electrical energy at its maximum output. This energy is used to charge
the battery and feed the consumers. (b) Hella intelligent battery sensor (IBS) [63,64].

Table 1
Comparison of ERSs. Efficiency gain: (3) over 25%, (2) 10–25%, (1) under 10%. Weight and space: (1) no significant space or weight added, (2) moderate extra space required
or weight added (typicallyo 40 kg), (3) considerable space required or weight added ( 440 kg). Energy recovery: (1) only under deceleration, (2) depending of road surface,
(3) continuously. Retrofit-ability: (1) difficult, (2) medium, (3) easy. N/A: not available. Table based in data from: [29–31,36,39,40,42,46,48–50,53,54,57–59,61,62].

Technique Type of energy Parameters

Source Storage Release Efficiency Space and Energy Hybrid Maturity Retrofit-
gain weight recovery Capability ability

Thermo electric TERS Thermal Chemical Electric 2 2 3 No 2018 2

Rankine cycle TERS Thermal Mechanical (steam) Electric- 2 2 3 Yes 2018 1
mechanical
Electric turbo compound (ETC) Kinetic Chemical Electric 1 2 3 No 2016 2
KERS from vertical oscillations Kinetic Chemical Electric 1 1 2 No N/A 3
Elastomer or spring KERS Kinetic Mechanical (elastic) Mechanical 2 3 1 Yes N/A 1
Pneumatic or hydraulic KERS Kinetic Mechanical (pressure) Mechanical- 3 3 1 Yes N/A 1
Electric
Flywheel KERS Kinetic Mechanical (rotation) Mechanical 3 3 1 Yes 2015 1
Strong electric KERS Kinetic Chemical Mechanical- 3 3 1 Yes Available 1
Electric
Mild electric KERS Kinetic Chemical Mechanical- 2 2 1 Yes Available 2
Electric
Alternator control KERS Kinetic Chemical Electric 1 1 1 No Available 3
 A. Gabriel-Buenaventura, B. Azzopardi / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 41 (2015) 955–964 963

Table 2
Main advantages and disadvantages for ERSs.

Technique Advantages Disadvantages

Thermo electric TERS Continuous energy recuperation Engine performance slightly reduced
Faster engine warm-up No hybrid capability
Exhaust system can be downsized
Rankine cycle TERS Continuous energy recuperation Complexity
Hybrid capability Difficult to retrofit.
Energy cannot be stored permanently
Electric turbo compound (ETC) Continuous energy recuperation Moderated gains in efficiency
Moderately easy to retrofit No hybrid capability
Low added weight and space Need of cooling adds complexity
KERS from vertical oscillations Easy to retrofit Low efficiency improvement
No space or significant weight added Best results for heavy and off-road vehicles
No hybrid capability. RSA subject to wear
Elastomer or spring KERS Purely mechanical, no losses for energy conversion Complex. Heavy. Requires CVT. Difficult to retrofit
Hybrid capability Currently not being developed
Energy recovery only during short periods
Pneumatic or hydraulic KERS High efficiency improvement. Difficult to retrofit.
Hybrid capability Pneumatic type can be noisy.
Not as costly as other ERSs with similar efficiency Heavy, bulky, best suited for heavy vehicles
Energy recovery only during short periods
Flywheel KERS High efficiency improvement. Complex, costly, difficult to retrofit.
Hybrid capability Energy cannot be stored permanently
Technology well proven in motorsport Energy recovery only during short periods
Strong electric KERS High efficiency improvement Proven technology, Complex, difficult to retrofit. Heavy, costly Losses due
already available to energy transformation processes
Hybrid capability Energy recovery only during short periods
Mild electric KERS Proven technology already available. Integrated type difficult to retrofit
Belted-type moderately easy to retrofit Losses due to energy transformation processes
Hybrid capability Energy recovery only during short periods
Alternator-control KERS Easy to retrofit. Inexpensive. Low efficiency improvement
Proven technology, already available Energy recovery only during short periods
No space or significant weight added No hybrid capability
Use of standard components possible

The amount of energy recovered with this system is obviously It has been identified that the best ERSs in terms of fuel
low compared with other KERS and consequently, efficiency efficiency gain are the most difficult to retrofit. However, in the
improvements are moderated. On the other hand, it allows for context of the study, the most suitable ERS may not be the one
excellent retrofitting properties, since there are not any new major providing the best retrofit characteristics or the highest efficiency
parts necessary for its implementation, so complexity, cost and improvement. Other factors need to be taken into consideration,
space requirements are kept low. such as annual mileage, age and residual value of the vehicle. With
an average age of cars around 7 years and a lifetime of 15 years,
the selection of a high-efficiency retrofit ERSs may not be suitable.
To obtain high gains in fuel usage, these systems require major
3. Comparison of ERS
new parts and modifications in the vehicle, with elevated costs
associated. The price of retrofitting the ERSs could be in the same
Main characteristics of ERSs are summarized in Table 1, while
order of magnitude than the residual value of the car, being very
typical advantages and disadvantages for each system are shown
unlikely for the owner to install the system. Therefore, a retro-
in Table 2. Due to the high number of ERSs analyzed, numerical
fitting ERS requires a good compromise between efficiency gains
data is from different sources, including simulations, prototype
and cost, so they can pay back its price in a short period of time. In
testing and manufacturers' information. Therefore, a qualitative
this way, they would be able to reduce GHG emissions while being
approach is best suited to show the results. The comparison
economically feasible to the end-user.
summary has to be taken in the context of assumptions.
Further research is needed to investigate the trade-off between
fuel consumption reduction and investment cost of the system.

4. Conclusion

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