AlloyingElements EN

Alloying Elements in Stainless Steel
and Other Chromium-Containing Alloys

by Pierre-Jean Cunat
Metals account for about two thirds of all the Pure iron is too soft to be used for the purpose
elements and about 25% of the mass of the of structure, but the addition of small
Earth. These are mainly around us in the form quantities of other elements (carbon, manga-
of metallic alloys which are used because of nese or silicon for instance) greatly increases
their various properties and characteristics, its mechanical strength. This is because the
such as strength, ductility, toughness, corrosion different atom sizes of other elements interrupts
resistance, heat resistance, thermal expansion, the orderly arrangement of atoms in the lattice
thermal and electrical conductivity. and prevents them from sliding over each
other as easily.
The strength of metals is that their atoms are
held together by strong bonding forces. Such Alloying elements have the capability to block
bonds are formed between metal atoms slip planes. In the case of chromium added to
allowing their outermost electrons to be iron (Fe-Cr alloys), there is another advantage,
shared by all the surrounding atoms, resulting which consists of a tremendous increase in
in positive ions i.e. cations being surrounded the corrosion resistance of the new metallic
by a cloud of electrons (valence electrons). alloy compared to pure iron. There are more
Because these valence electrons are shared than a hundred chromium-containing metallic
by all the atoms, they are not considered to alloys. Each one was developed for a particular
be associated with any atom in particular. need, and each has its own set of properties
This is very different from ionic or covalent and characteristics.
bonds, where electrons are shared by one or
two atoms. The metallic bond is therefore The most important characteristics common
strong and uniform. Even if the added elements to all chromium-containing alloys, among
are non-metals, alloys still have metallic them stainless steels, is that they contain
properties. sufficient chromium to make them corrosion
resistant, oxidation resistant and/ or heat
Most metals are not used in their pure form resistant.
but have alloying elements added to modify
their properties and this can be used for All of these alloys contain chromium (Cr),
specific applications. The presence of a manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), carbon (C),
proportion of a second element associated nitrogen (Ni), sulphur (S), and phosphorus
with a metal to form an alloy, e.g. chromium (P), and may contain: nickel (Ni), molybdenum
with iron to form Fe-Cr alloys, can drastically (Mo), titanium (Ti), niobium (Nb), zirconium
alter some of its properties. (Zr), copper (Cu), tungsten (W), vanadium (V),
selenium (Se), and some other minor
elements.
© Euro Inox 2004

Published in cooperation with the International
Chromium Development Association.
The publication is available in print from
ICDA, 45 Rue de Lisbonne, F-75008 Paris,
Fax +33 1 40 76 06 89, e-mail mailbox@chromium-asoc.com
www.euroinox.org · 1
ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STAINLESS STEEL
Stainless Steels resistance, particularly to chloride stress

corrosion cracking (SCC), is important. Common
Stainless Steel is a generic term for a large usesare automotive exhaustsystems(11.00%Cr),
family of corrosion resistant alloys containing automotive trim (17.00%Cr-1.50%Mo), hot
at least 10.50% chromium (according to the water tanks (18.00%Cr-2.00%Mo-Ti).
European standard EN10088) and may
contain other alloying elements. Stainless Austenitic Stainless Steels:
steels can be divided into five categories: Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo) alloys
martensitic, ferritic, austenitic, austenitic-
ferritic so-called duplex, and precipitation In austenitic grades, carbon is usually kept to
hardening (PH). low levels (C < 0.08%). Chromium content
ranges from 16.00 to 28.00% and nickel
Martensitic Stainless Steels: content ranges from 3.50 to 32.00%. This
Fe-Cr-C-(Ni-Mo) alloys chemical composition allows them to maintain
an austenitic structure from cryogenic
These alloys have a chromium content that temperatures up to the melting point of the
ranges from 11.50 to 18.00%. They have alloy. These alloys cannot be hardened
relatively high carbon content from 0.15 to through heat treatment. The key properties
1.20% compared to other stainless steels of these types of stainless steel are excellent
and molybdenum can also be used. These corrosion resistance, ductility and toughness.
grades can be hardened through heat Common uses are: Food processing equipment,
treatment to offer strength and hardness. equipment for the chemical industry, domestic
They are magnetic. The common uses are appliances, and architectural applications.
knife blades, surgical instruments, shafts,
etc. Duplex-Austenitic-Ferritic Stainless Steels:
Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo)-N alloys
Ferritic Stainless Steel: Fe-Cr-(Mo) alloys
In duplex stainless steels, carbon is kept to
In ferritic grades, carbon is kept to low levels very low levels (C < 0.03%). Chromium content
(C<0.08%) and the chromium content can ranges from 21.00 to 26.00%, nickel content
range from10.50 to 30.00%. While some ranges from 3.50 to 8.00% and these alloys
ferritic grades contain molybdenum (up to may contain molybdenum (up to 4.50%).
4.00%), only chromium is present as the main These grades have a mixed structure of ferrite
metallic alloying element. These grades (50%) and austenite (50%) and offer physical
cannot be hardened through heat treatment. properties which reflect this structure. These
Ferritic grades are magnetic and chosen when alloys are magnetic, and offer higher tensile
toughness is not a primary need but corrosion and yield strengths than austenitic stainless
2 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

steels. Common uses are in marine applications, minimized, allowing them to be used for high
petrochemical plant, desalination plant, heat precision parts. Precipitation-hardened
exchangers and papermaking industry. stainless steels have an initial microstructure
of austenite or martensite. Austenitic grades
Precipitation Hardening (PH): are converted to martensitic grades through
Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo-Al-Cu-Nb)-N alloys heat treatment before precipitation hardening
can be done. Precipitation hardening (PH)
High strength, middling corrosion resistance results when the heat aging treatment causes
and ease of fabrication are the primary hard intermetallic compounds to precipitate
benefits offered by this family of stainless from the crystal lattice as the martensite is
steel grades. These grades develop very high tempered.
strength after a low temperature (500-800°C)
heat treatment. Since lower temperature can Common uses are in the aerospace and some
be used, concerns with part distortion are other high-technology industries.
© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 3

2. Carbon
Carbon is a non-metallic element, which is cooled too slowly after hot working or
an important alloying element in all-ferrous annealing or subsequently reheated (as in
metal based materials. Carbon is always welding operations). The consequence is an
present in metallic alloys, i.e. in all grades of unwanted precipitation of carbide-containing
stainless steel and heat resistant alloys. chromium. This precipitation of carbon takes
Carbon is a very strong austenitizer and place at grain boundaries and is referred to as
increases the strength of steel. sensitisation. It has been demonstrated that
the loss of chromium associated with the
In austenitic, ferritic, and duplex stainless steels, carbide precipitation lowers corrosion
it is kept to low levels (typically 0.005% C to resistance and brings about susceptibility to
0.03% C in low carbon grades) to retain the localised corrosion, i.e. intergranular corrosion,
desired propertiesand mechanicalcharacteristics. at the grain boundaries following the network
of chromium carbides.
In martensitic stainless steels, carbon is
deliberately added to obtain both high strength
and high hardness, thanks to the formation
of a martensitic structure.
In martensitic grades, carbon is added as an

alloying element, in amounts varying from
0.15% to 1.2% to make these alloys heat
treatable by quenching and tempering to
develop this martensite phase.
The principal effect of carbon on corrosion

resistance is determined by the way in which
it exists in the alloy.
If it is combined with chromium as a separate

constituent (chromium carbide), it may have
a detrimental effect on corrosion resistance by
removing some of the chromium from solid
solution in the alloy and, as a consequence,
reducing the amount of chromium available
to ensure corrosion resistance. This adverse Graphite – Lake Harbour (Canada) – Courtesy of Ecole des
effect of carbon can be caused if the alloy is Mines de Paris

3. Chromium
3.1 Discovery, History and

Sources
In 1797, the French professor of chemistry,

Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin discovered chromium
oxide, as a part of "red lead” (lead chromate
PbCrO4), a lead ore from Beresovsk (Ural). In
1798, he had isolated the metal chromium
(chrome in French) by reducing the oxide. It is
named after the Greek word chroma (χρωµα)
meaning colour.
The principal ore is chromite, a spinel

corresponding to the general formula (Mg, Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin (1763-1829) studied
Fe++) (Cr, Al, Fe+++) 2O4 and the simplified pharmacy in Rouen and Paris. He became professor
at the "Ecole Polytechnique” (1794), the "Collège de
formula Cr2O3, FeO.
France” (1801), the "Museum d’Histoire Naturelle”
(1804) and at the "Ecole de Médecine de Paris”
Chromium is the 13th most abundant element (1809). He also discovered beryllium (1789) and
in the Earth’s crust, with an average osmium (1804).
concentration of the order of 400 ppm. 14

million tonnes of marketable chromite ore for 46% of production whilst Kasakhstan and
were produced in 2002. South Africa accounted India represented 36%, Brasil, Finland, Turkey
and Zimbabwe together provided 14% of the
total production whilst 12 smaller producer
countries added the balance of 4%. At the
present consumption levels, demonstrated
reserves will last for several centuries and
less economical identified resources are
sufficient to double that availability.
3.2 Physical Properties
Chromium is a silver-grey transition metal

with a relative atomic mass (12C=12) of
51.996, an atomic number of 24, and a
melting point of 1,875°C and a density of
7.190 kg/dm3. It is in group VI of the periodic
Chrome ore: Chromite – Mine Dyne (New Caledonia) – table. Chromium has a body-centred-cubic
Courtesy of Ecole des Mines de Paris
(b.c.c.) crystal structure.

3.3 Metallurgical Applications determined by their ability to protect

for Chromium themselves through the formation of an
adherent, insoluble film of reaction products
About 85% of the chromite mined is used in that shields the metal substrate from uniform
metallurgy, namely stainless steels, low-alloy and localised attack. The protective film called
steels, hig-strength alloy steels, tool steels passive layer or passive film. It is a very fine
and high-performance alloys such as layer on the surface, of the order of 1.0 to 2.0
chromium-cobalt- tungsten (or molybdenum) nm, which reduces the corrosion rate to
alloys, nickel-chromium-manganese-niobium- negligible levels and has a structure similar
tantalum (or titanium) alloys, nickel-chromium- to chromite.
molybdenum alloys, cobalt-chromium alloys
and some Maraging steels (high-strength alloy For passivation to occur and remain stable, the
irons of the precipitation hardening type). Fe-Cr alloy must have a minimum chromium
content of about 11% by weight, above which
Due to its strength and its high resistance to passivity can occur and below which it is
corrosion, chromium is often used in plating impossible. The corrosion resistance of Fe-Cr
and metal finishing. alloys tends to improve as the chromium
content is increased, and definite changes
3.4 The Role of Chromium in happen at about 11% Cr, and again around
Stainless Steels 17% Cr.
The properties that distinguish stainless steels

i.e. Fe-Cr-(Mo) alloys and Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo) alloys For further information, please go
from other corrosion-resistant materials to the website of the International
depend essentially on chromium. The high Chromium Development Association
degree of reactivity of chromium is the basis (ICDA), www.chromium-asoc.com
for the effectiveness of chromium as an
alloying element in stainless steels. The
resistance of these metallic alloys to the
chemical effects of corrosive agents is

4. Nickel

Sources
In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist and

chemist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered
nickel as an impurity in an ore-containing
niccolite (nickel arsenide). He reported it as
a new element and proposed the name of
nickel for it. This element is 24th in the order Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1722-1765), Swedish
of abundance in the Earth’s crust with an mineralogist and chemist, was one of the first to
recognise the importance of the chemical constituents
average concentration of 80 ppm. The two
of minerals and rocks and is noted for his efforts to
major sources of this metal are the nickel- establish a new mineralogical system. He is also
bearing sulphide inside iron-copper pyrites credited with developing an experimental procedure
deposits in Canada, Russia (Siberian mines), involving the systematic use of blowpipes for
analysing the chemical composition of minerals. He
New-Caledonia and South-Africa and the
wrote "An Essay towards a System of Mineralogy”
nickel-bearing laterite deposits such as (1758).
garnierite (South East-Asia, Australia and the
Caribbean). World mine production of nickel
totalled 1.26Mt in 2001, the highest output
ever recorded. The principal producing
countries were Russia (20%), Canada (15%), 4.2 Physical Properties
Australia (15%) and New Caledonia (10%).
Nickel is a silver-white transition metal with
a relative atomic mass (12C=12) of 58.69, an
atomic number of 28, a melting point of
1,453°C and a density of 8.902 kg/dm3. It is
in group VIII on the periodic table. It has a
face-centred-cubic (f.c.c.) crystal structure.
Nickel is ferromagnetic up to 353°C, its Curie
point.
Nickel ore: Garnierite (New Caledonia) –


4.3 Metallurgical Applications Nickel promotes the resistance to corrosion of

for Nickel the nickel-based alloys as compared with the
iron-based alloys under conditions where the
About 65% of nickel production is used in passive layers may be absent, or may be
stainless steels, compared to 45% ten years destroyed locally or uniformly. For example,
ago. High-performance alloys (nickel-based), pitting corrosion tends to progress less rapidly
cobalt-based and iron-nickel-based high- in high-nickel alloys.
performance alloys) represent another
growing metallurgical end-use for nickel. In Fe-Ni alloys, their original features can be
explained by two major phenomena. A one
is the abnormally low expansion in compo-
4.4 The Role of Nickel in sitions close to INVAR (36% Ni) due to a large
Stainless Steels spontaneous volume magnetrostriction and
exceptionally high electrical permeabilities
In stainless steels, nickel has no direct resulting from the disappearance of various
influence on the passive layer but exerts a anisotropies in the vicinity of 80% Ni.
beneficial effect, particularly in sulphuric acid
environments. Thanks to nickel austenitic Nickel forms the base of high temperature
stainless steels, i.e. Fe-Cr-Ni(Mo) alloys, superalloys because of its ability to develop
exhibit a wide range of mechanical properties an adherent oxide and precipitation hardening
that are unparalleled by any other alloy system phases based on Ni3Al.
today. For instance, these alloys exhibit
excellent ductility and toughness, even at Nickel is a moderate strengthener, and
high strength levels and these properties are consequently large amounts can be added
retained up to cryogenic temperatures. to low-alloy steel before strength increases
to an undesirable level. In low-alloy steel,
nickel appears to have a greater overall,
beneficial effect on toughness transition
temperature than any other substitutional
alloying element.
For further information, please go

to the website of the Nickel
Development Institute (NiDI),
www.nidi.org

5. Molybdenum
5.1 Discovery, History

and Sources
Although the metal was known to ancient

cultures, molybdenum was not formally
identified until 1778, when the Swedish
chemist and apothecary Carl Wilhelm Scheele
produced molybdic oxide by attacking pulverized
molybdenite (MoS3) with concentrated nitric
acid and then evaporating the residue to Carl Wilhelm Scheele was apprenticed to an
dryness. apothecary in Gothenburg when he was 14 years old.
When he was 28 he moved to Uppsala to practice as
an apothecary. He was elected to the Stockholm
Initially, this element was extracted from what
Royal Academy of Sciences in 1775. Also in 1775 he
was thought to be lead ore and it was mistakenly moved to Köping where he established his own
named for the Greek word molubdos pharmacy. In 1777, Scheele published his only book,
(µολυβδοσ), which is the Greek word for lead. Chemical Observations and Experiments on Air and
Fire.
Following Scheele’s suggestion, another

Swedish chemist and mineralogist, Peter French chemist and Nobel Prize laureate, Henri
Jacob Hjelm, isolated the first metallic Moissan, produced the first chemically pure
molybdenum in 1782 by reducing molybdic molybdenum metal by reducing it with carbon
oxide (MoO3) but it was not until 1895 that the in his electric furnace, thereby making it
possible to conduct scientific and metallurgical
research into the metal and its alloys.
Molybdenum remained mainly a laboratory

issue throughout most of the 19th century until
the technology for the extraction of commercial
quantities became practicable.
In 1891, the French arms manufacturer,

Schneider S.A., introduced molybdenum as an
alloying element in the production of armour
plate at its works in Le Creusot. In 1900, two
Molybdenum ore: Molybdenite –
Noerkheia (Norway) – American engineers, F.W. Taylor and P. White,
Courtesy of Ecole des Mines de Paris presented the first molybdenum based high
speed steels at the Exposition Universelle de

Paris. Simultaneously, Marie Curie in France 5.3 Metallurgical Applications for

and J.A. Mathews in the U.S.A. used molybdenum Molybdenum
to prepare permanent magnets.
The high melting point of molybdenum makes
th
This element is in 38 position in the Earth’s it important for giving strength to steel and
crust with an average concentration of 15 other metallic alloys at high temperatures. It
ppm. The major molybdenite deposits are in is also added to metallic alloys because of
the U.S.A., Chile, China, Canada and in the its resistance to corrosion.
former Soviet Union. The remainder is distri-
buted between Mexico, Peru, Iran and Although low alloy steels, stainless steels
Mongolia. The global mine production is and cast iron makes up the biggest market
around 140,000 tons per year with 27% in segment, molybdenum is also used in certain
the U.S.A., 20% in China, 25% in Chile and high performance alloys, such as the
8% in Canada. Hastelloys and Inconel. Molybdenum is also
used as electrodes in electrically heated
furnaces, as filament for electronic applications
5.2 Physical Properties and as catalyst for the refining of petroleum.
Molybdenum is a silver-white transition metal

with a relative atomic mass (12C=12) of 95.94, 5.4 Role of Molybdenum in
an atomic number of 42, a melting point of Stainless Steels
2,610°C and a density of 10.22 kg / dm3. It is
in group VI on the periodic table. Molybdenum Molybdenum is used in stainless steels in
has a body-centred-cubic (b.c.c.) crystal amounts up to 8% and most commonly in
structure. the range from 2 to 4%. Even such relatively
small percentages of molybdenum have
powerful effects in improving the resistance
to pitting in chloride environments and to
crevice in both Fe-Cr alloys and Fe-Cr-Ni alloys.
Molybdenum reduces the intensity of the
oxidizing effect required to insure passivity
and decrease the tendency of previously
formed passive films to break down.
For further information, please go

to the website of the International
Molybdenum Association (IMOA),
www.imoa.info

Chromium and Molybdenum
Stainless Steels Alloy Steels for High-Temperature

Service
An increase in the chromium and molybdenum
content mainly increases resistance to To accommodate the effects of temperature
localised corrosion (pitting and crevice) and and thermal cycling, a segment of technology
is particularly effective in the ferritic grades. has been developed to guide the design and
In austenitic and duplex alloys, nitrogen also the selection of materials. The usual corrosion
has a beneficial influence on the pitting threat is oxidation and it is well known that
corrosion resistance. In order to quantify oxidising become more active with increasing
these composition effects, empirical indices temperature. The corrosion problem at high
have been derived to describe the resistance temperatures may be complicated by other
to pitting corrosion in the form of Pitting phenomena, such as localised stress-oxidation
Resistance Equivalent (PRE). For ferritic steels, cracking, chemical reaction with sulphurous
the formula employed is: gases and attack by hot hydrogen.
PRE = % Cr + 3.3 (% Mo) A survey of the alloys commonly employed

in high temperature service shows that
where the concentrations are in weight %, chromium and molybdenum are the two most
while for austenitic and duplex grades it is: frequently used alloying elements. Chromium
is effective for increasing strength and improving
PRE (N) = % Cr + 3.3 (% Mo) + K*(% N) oxidation resistance whereas molybdenum
increases strength at higher temperatures.
Where K = 16 for duplex stainless steels This improvement of the oxidation resistance
K = 30 for austenitic stainless steels is credited to the affinity of chromium for
oxygen and as a consequence a protective
Experience shows that there is a good film is formed on the surface of the chromium-
correlation between the PRE value and the containing steels.
resistance to pitting corrosion. Stabilising
additions, such as titanium and niobium and The efficacy of chromium and molybdenum in
certain impurities (e.g. sulphur) can also have improving strength and oxidation resistance
a marked influence on pitting. is so outstanding that chromium-molybdenum-
containing steels dominate the high-tempera-
ture field of construction materials. Table 1
lists representative alloy steels often used
for high-temperature service.

Common designation Maximum Tool Steels

temperature in
air (°C)
Tool steels are used for making engineer’s
0.5% Cr - 0.5% Mo 570 tools (punches, dies, molds, tools for cutting,
1.25% Cr - 0.5% Mo 590
2.25% Cr - 1.0% Mo 630 blanking, forming, drawing, steering and
3.0% Cr - 1.0% Mo 640 slitting tools). They are generally grouped into
5.0% Cr - 0.5% Mo 650
7.0% Cr - 0.5% Mo 680 two classes:
9.0% Cr - 1.0% Mo 820
Table 1: Typical chromium-molybdenum-containing

1) Plain carbon steels containing a high
steels for high temperature service. percentage of carbon, about 0.80-1.50%
This listing starts with a 0.5% chromium- 2) Alloy tool steels, in which other elements
0.5% molybdenum-containing-steel and (chromium, molybdenum, vanadium,
progresses through steels of increasing tungsten and cobalt) are added to provide
chromium content up to 9.0%. Many high- greater strength, toughness, corrosion and
temperature or heat-resisting steels have a heat resistance of steel.
higher chromium content, but they are con-
sidered as high-alloy-steels, such as stainless Chromium improves the corrosion and heat
steels, and are not included in the present resistance, increases the depth of hardening
listing. during heat-treatment and the high temperature
strength. In high-speed steels (containing up
One of the most important points to bear in to 12.00 % Cr), chromium plays an important
mind is that chromium and molybdenum, role in the hardening mechanism and is
although added to increase strength and considered irreplaceable.
oxidation resistance at high temperatures,
also promote hardenability. Molybdenum (about 0.50-8.00%) when
added to a tool steel makes it more resistant
An important application, in which steels are to high temperature. Molybdenum increases
subjected to high temperature service, is the hardenability and improves fatigue property
refining and reforming equipment of the and wear resistance.
petroleum industry. Many of the reactors in
refining plants operate at high temperatures
and strong demands are made for durability.
Two main problems have been encountered
in catalytic reformers. They are linked to the
operative temperature and pressure. Catalytic
reformers operate in the range of 450 to 570°C
at pressures greater than 15 bar in contact
with a flow of hydrogen-containing gas
mixtures.

6. Niobium
6.1 Discovery, History and Charles Hatchett Award instituted by Companhia

Sources Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineraçao – CBMM – and
confered by the institute of Materials – London
Niobium was discovered in 1801 by Charles

Hatchett in an ore called “columbite” sent to
England in the 1750s by John Wintrop, the
first governor of Connecticut – U.S.A. Hatchett
named the new element columbium. The
present name of the metal is due to Heinrich
Rose, a German chemist who, when separating
Charles Hatchett (1765 – 1847), English manufacturer
it in 1846 from tantalum, identified it as a and chemist, was an expert in analysis. He was
new element and named it “Niobe” meaning elected to the Royal Society in 1794. Thanks to his
“daughter of Tantalus” because tantalum is expertise in analysis, Hatchett ran his own laboratory
in Roehampton (close to London) and was frequently
closely related to niobium in the periodic
called upon as a consultant.
table.
The earliest information about niobium usage

is dated 1925, when it was utilised to replace
tungsten in tool steel. However, until the preventing intergranular corrosion in some
beginning of the 1930s, niobium had no stainless steels and it found its first industrial
industrial importance. Niobium is efficient in application for this purpose.
In the 1950s, with the start of the space race,

there was a significant increase in the interest
in niobium due to its properties as a light
refractory metal. The discovery that a small
amount of niobium added to a carbon steel
significantly improved its properties led to
the use of the micro alloy concept.
Pyrochlore is the most abundant mineral

phase containing niobium. The most important
pyrochlores are bariopyrochlore from
residually enriched carbonatite at Araxa, Brazil
(Nb205 / 66%, BaO/14% and H20 / 8%) and
pyrochlore from primary carbonatrite at St.
Honoré, Quebec (Nb205 / 68%, CaO / 14%
Niobium ore: Niobite – Mina Gerais (Brazil) – and Na20 / 5.8%). Columbite corresponds to

FeNb2O6, it is derived by the weathering of 6.4 The Role of Niobium in

granites. Of all the elements in the crust of Stainless Steels
the Earth, niobium is number 33 in order of
abundance with an average concentration of In micro-alloyed steels, the strengthening
the order of 25 ppm. mechanisms are based on the precipitation
of fine dispersed carbide (NbC).
Reserves are about 460 million tons, sufficient
to satisfy current world demand for about 500 In stainless steels, as far as corrosion
years. resistance is concerned, it is well known that
stabilising the grade by Nb additions prevents
the risk of intergranual corrosion in heat
6.2 Physical Properties affected zones. To prevent this the niobium is
added in sufficient amounts, depending on
Niobium is a shiny, white transition metal the carbon and nitrogen (ferritic types) levels.
with a relative atomic mass (12C=12) of 92.906,
an atomic number of 41, a melting point of The theoretical amount of niobium required
2,468° C and a density of 8.57 kg / dm3. It is for full stabilisation based on stoichiometric
in group V on the periodic table. Niobium has calculation is described by the equation:
body centred cubic (b.c.c.) crystal structure.
%Nb ≥ 0.2 + 5 (%C + %N)
6.3 Metallurgical Applications In ferritic stainless steels, the addition of

for Niobium niobium is one of the most effective methods
for improving thermal fatigue resistance.
Nowadays, the most important application
for niobium is an alloying element for micro-
alloyed steels in which it is used to strengthen
the metal structure. An important secondary
application for niobium is in super alloys
operating in the hot section of aircraft engines.
Niobium is also utilised in stainless steels
(austenitics and ferritics) as a stabilising
element and to improve creep resistance
(ferritics) and for purposes involving
supraconductivity (niobium – titanium alloys),
which permitted the development of modern
magnets.

7. Titanium
7.1 Discovery, History and ilmanite (FeTiO3), perovskite [(Ca, Fe) TiO3].
Sources Titanium is the 9th most abundant element in
the Earth’s crust, with an average concentration
Titanium was discovered by the Reverend of the order of 6,000 ppm.
William Gregor in 1791 and isolated in Creed,
Cornwall, U.K. He recognised the presence of Mining of titanium minerals is usually
this new element in menachanite, a mineral performed using surface methods. In 2000,
named after MENACCAN. Australia, Canada, India, Norway and South
Africa led the world production of the order of
Several years later, in 1795 in Berlin, the 2 million tonnes of concentrated titanium
element was rediscovered in the ore rutile mineral. Titanium and zircon are contained
(TiO2) by a German chemist, M.H. Klaproth. in sand deposits that are estimated to total
However, the pure metal was not made until 540 million tonnes. Titanium sponge is the
1910 by Matthew A. Hunter, who heated rudimentary form of titanium metal. In 2000,
titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) with sodium in titanium sponge was produced in China,
a steel reactor at 700 – 800° C. In the 1950s Japan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine and the
titanium came into use as a structural U.S.A. Titanium metal is produced by melting
material. The element is named after the titanium sponge.
Titans, in Greek mythology, the sons of
Uranus, the Sky god and Gaïa, the Earth 7.2 Physical Properties
goddess. Titanium occurs in combination as
oxide or silicate in rutile and anatase (TiO2), Titanium is a hard silver metal with a relative
atomic mass (12C = 12) of 47.867, an atomic
number of 22, a melting point of 1,668° C
and a density of 4.54 kg / dm3. It is in group
IV on the periodic table. Titanium has an
hexagonal close-packed (h.c.p.) structure.
7.3 Metallurgical Applications

for Titanium
Only about 5% of the annual world production

of titanium ore goes into making titanium
metal. Titanium metallic alloys are used in
aerospace, marine, chemical engineering and
other applications for their high strength-to-
Titanium ore: Rutile - Parsksburg (USA) – weight ratio and corrosion resistance in
Courtesy of Ecole des Mines de Paris neutral and oxidising environments. Titanium
is commonly utilised in stainless steels
(austenitics and ferritics) as a stabilising
element.

Titanium is also very effective as a micro alloy Titanium and Niobium

in steel, influencing the microstruture by the as Stabilising Elements:
formation of nitrides (TiN) and carbides (TiC). Dual Stabilisation
7.4 The Role of Titanium Stabilising elements are added to Fe-Cr-(Mo)

in Stainless Steels alloys and Fe-Cr-Ni-(Mo) alloys to prevent
sensitisation to intergranular corrosion
Titanium is a highly reactive element which following a sojourn of the alloy within the
forms stable TiN precipitate in the liquid temperature range in which precipitation of
phase, in the presence of nitrogen (N). In the chromium carbide might occur. The function
presence of both C and N, titanium nitrides TiN of these stabilising elements is to combine
(in the liquid phase) and titanium carbides TiC preferentially with any carbon for Fe-Cr-Ni-
(in the solid phase) form, the latter (Mo) alloys and with any carbon and nitrogen
surrounding the former. The most commonly for Fe-Cr-(Mo) alloys that might otherwise
used stabilising element for stainless steel precipate as a chromium carbide and a
is titanium. The stochiometric amount of Ti chromium nitride (Fe-Cr-(Mo) alloys). This
required for full stabilisation is described by leaves the chromium in solid solution in the
the following equation: alloy where it belongs and the full corrosion
resisting qualities of the alloy are therefore
Ti ≥ 4 (%C) + 3.4 (%N) preserved. Dual stabilisation with titanium
and niobium provides the best mechanical
However, greater levels of Ti are required for properties for weldments. This behaviour
full stabilisation because Ti reacts with sulphur might be related to a better grain size control
to form stable Ti sulphides, Ti2S. In practice, and probably to a modification of the nature
the generally accepted level of Ti required to and morphology of precipitates. The optimal
fully stabilise a stainless steel, must therefore dual stabilisation content is given by the
satisfy the following criteria: equation:
Ti ≥ 0.15 + 4 (%C +%N) % Ti + 4/7 (% Nb) ≥ 0.15 + 4 (C + N)
Titanium also improves resistance to pitting The advantages of this dual stabilisation can
corrosion since stable Ti2S have been shown be summed up as follows: The TiN precipitates
to form in preference to manganese sulphides formed in the liquid phase act as nucleation
(MnS) which are known to act as pit iniation sites for crystal growth, resulting in a fine-
sites. In low alloy steels, titanium has a strong grained equiaxed structure that improves the
desire to unite with carbon, nitrogen and mechanical properties of weldments.
oxygen. When dissolved in steel, titanium is
believed to increase hardenability; however, Less Nb is required for full stabilisation,
the carbide-forming tendency of this element thereby further reducing the amount of low
is so strong that it is frequently in the steel melting phases that might form at the grain
structure as undissolved carbides and in this boundaries.
way decreases hardenability.

8. Manganese

Sources Manganese is the 12th most abundant element
in the Earth’s crust, with an average concen-
In 1771, the Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm tration of the order of 1,100 ppm. The major
Scheele recognised manganese as a new manganese deposits are essentially situated
element. It was isolated in 1774 by another in South Africa, China, Australia, Gabon,
Swedish chemist, Johann-Gottlieb Gahn (1745 Brazil, Ukraine, India, Kazakhstan and Mexico.
– 1818) by reducing manganese dioxide The world production of manganese ore is in
MnO2. At the beginning of the 19th century, the order of 20 million tonnes per year and the
both British and French metallurgists began world reserves are estimated to be 600 million
considering the use of manganese in tonnes of ore. There are also large manganese
steelmaking. reserves on deep ocean floors in the form of
polymetallic nodules. They are estimated at
2 – 300 million tonnes of manganese.
Manganese is a grey-white metal with a

relative mass (12C = 12) of 54.938, an atomic
number of 25, a melting point of 1,245° C
and a density of 7.43 kg / dm3. It is in group
VII on the periodic table. Manganese has a
complex cubic crystal structure.
Manganese ore –Manganite - Ilfeld (Germany) –


8.3 Metallurgical Applications Besides entering into combination with oxygen

for Manganese and sulphur, manganese also influences the
behaviour of steel. The presence of manganese
Manganese is essential to steel making increases the hardenability of the steel. Very
because of two key properties: its ability to large additions of manganese, about 12
combine with sulphur and its powerful to 15%, make the steel (Hadfield’s steel)
deoxidation capacity. Some 30% of the world austenitic at room temperature.
production of manganese is used for its
properties as a sulphide former and deoxidiser. Manganese is usually found as an alloying
The balance of 70% is used as an alloying element in all types of steel (carbon steels
element. and stainless steels) to assist the deoxidation
of the steel and to prevent the formation of
Relatively small quantities of manganese have iron sulphide inclusions which may cause
been used for alloying with non-ferrous alloys, hot cracking problems.
mainly in the aluminium industry.
Its ability to stabilise the austenite in steel

is used in the "200 series” of austenitic stainless
steels in which its content varies from 4 to
15.5%.
8.4 The Role of Manganese
The properties of manganese enable it to act

as an alloying element and a deoxidiser in
steel. When added to molten steel, manganese
will react with oxygen to form manganese
oxide (MnO). Manganese will also combine
preferentially with sulphur to form manganese
sulphide, (Mn S).

9. Silicon
9.1 Discovery, History

and Sources
In 1823, the Swedish professor of medicine,

Jöns-Jacob Berzelius discovered amorphous
silicon by heating potassium in an atmosphere
of gaseous silicon tetrafluoride, SiF4. In 1854,
the French professor of chemistry, Henri- Jöns-Jacob Berzelius (1779 – 1848) studied medicine
Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville prepared crystalline in Upsala (Sweden). He became professor of
silicon, a second allotropic form of the element. medicine and pharmacy in 1807 at the University of
Stockholm. He was elected to the Stockholm Royal
Academy of Sciences in 1806.
Silicon is not found free in nature, but occurs
chiefly as oxide and as silicates. Silicon is
the second most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust, with an average concentration
of about 27%.
Henri-Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville (1817 – 1881)

studied chemistry. He became professor at the
University of Besançon in 1806 and at the " Ecole
Normale Supérieure” in 1812. He was elected to the
French Academy of Sciences in 1861.
Silica: Quartz – Guerrero (Mexico) –


The world production of industrial sand and It is used in combination with copper to form
sand gravel, often called “silica”, “silica sand” what are known as silicon brass (copper-zinc
and “quartz sand” which includes sands and alloys) and silicon bronzes. Silicon – aluminium
gravels with high dioxide (SiO2) content is of alloys containing 5% or more silicon are used
the order of 110 million tonnes per year. for castings.
9.2 Physical Properties 9.4 The Role of Silicon in

Stainless Steel
Silicon is a dark-grey metalloid (silicon is not
considered as a metal) with a relative mass In small amounts, silicon confers mild
(12C = 12) of 28.085, an atomic number of hardenability on steels. Small amounts of
14, a melting point of 1,414° C, and a density silicon and copper are usually added to the
of 2.33 kg / dm3. It is in group IV on the austenitic stainless steels containing molyb-
periodic table. Silicon has a diamond (dia) denum to improve corrosion resistance in
structure. sulphuric acid.
Silicon is commonly added to stainless steels

9.3 Metallurgical Applications to improve their oxidation resistance and is a
for Silicon ferrite stabiliser. In austenitic stainless steels,
high-silicon content not only improves
Silicon is a metalloid (non-metallic element) resistance to oxidation but also prevents
produced by the reduction of silica (SiO2) at carburising at elevated temperatures.
high temperatures.
Silicon is an important alloying element for

both ferrous and non-ferrous metals. It is
used extensively as a deoxidiser in steel
making (carbon steel and stainless steel). In
heat resisting stainless steels its presence
improves oxidation at high temperatures. In
cast irons silicon acts as graphitiser since it
decomposes and so reduces the amount of
combined carbon. It confers on electrical
steels (up to 5% Si) some specific magnetic
properties.

10. Nitrogen

Sources
It seems that nitrogen was discovered in 1772

by Daniel Rutherford. The word nitrogen is
made up from two Greek words: νιτρο (nitro)
meaning saltpetre and γενεξ (genes) meaning
producing. This is because the most important
use of nitrogen was as saltpetre, a compound
called potassium nitrate, well known as a Daniel Rutherford (1749 – 1819), Scottish chemist
fertiliser. and physicist. As a physicist, he was one of the first
to recognise the importance of "specific heat”. As a
chemist, he was credited with discovering magnesia
and carbon dioxide.
Nitrogen is as a relatively inert gas, with a major influence on the precipitation kinetics
relative atomic mass (12C = 12) of about 14, of intermatlic compounds like carbides,
and an atomic number of 7. It constitutes nitrides and carbo-nitrides.
about 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere by
volume and 76% by mass. Each molecule of
nitrogen is made up of two nitrogen atoms 10.4 The Role of Nitrogen
linked together extremely strongly. In a in Stainless Steels
nitrogen molecule, the three lines joining the
two atoms represent a triple bond. In austenitic and duplex stainless steels,
nitrogen content increases the resistance to
localised corrosion like pitting or intergranular.
10.3 Metallurgical Applications This is due to the precipitation of Cr2N nitride
for Nitrogen instead of Cr23 C6 carbide.
Nitrogen (as carbon) is an interstitial element Low-carbon austenitic stainless steel contains
in steel because its atomic size is sufficiently 0.03% maximum carbon in order to minimise
small relative to that of iron, chromium or the risk of sensitisation during welding or
nickel, to allow this element to enter the heat treatments. The yield strength of low
α-alloys and the γ-alloy lattices as interstitial carbon grades is lower than that of standard
solute atoms. The solubility of nitrogen is grades. To overcome this problem, the low
greater in austenite (γ) than in ferrite (α), carbon grades with nitrogen addition (up to
because of the larger interstices available. 0.2% nitrogen), have been developed.
The solubility for nitrogen in austenite is as Nitrogen in solid solution raises the yield
high as 2.4% while in ferrite it is only 0.1% at strength to at least the same level as in the
the temperature of 1,100° C. Nitrogen has a standard austenitic grades.

11. Cobalt

Sources
Cobalt was discovered in 1735 by the Swedish

chemist George Brandt. This element is 30th in
order of abundance in the Earth’s crust. With
an average concentration of 20 ppm, the two
major cobalt deposits are in Zaire and in
Zambia. The remainder of mined cobalt comes
Georg Brandt (1694 – 1768), Swedish chemist, was the
from Canada, Australia and Morocco. son of an iron worker and from an early age he helped
his father with metallurgical experiments. He studied
medicine and chemistry at Leiden. In 1727, he was
appointed director of the Laboratory of the Council of
Mines in Stockholm and three years later became
warden of the Royal Mint and Professor of Chemistry at
Cobalt is a silvery-white transition metal with the University of Upsala.
a relative atomic mass (12C=12) of 58.933,
an atomic number of 27 and a melting point
of 1,495° C and a density of 8.92 g/cm3. It is
in group VIII on the periodic table. Cobalt has
an hexagonal close packed (h.c.p.) crystal
structure.
11.3 Metallurgical Applications

of Cobalt
Cobalt is alloyed with iron, nickel and other

metals to make an alloy with special magnetic
properties. Cobalt is a major constituent of
the “Super Alloys”, which are used principally
in: Cobalt ore: Skutterudite – Irhtem (Morocco) –
• High temperature applications, e.g. gas
turbine components
• Wear resistant alloys
• Hard-facing alloy consumables (welding)
• Orthopaedic implants
• Tool steels.

11.4 The Role of Cobalt in For example, it is possible to obtain

Cobalt-Chromium Alloys • Adjustable tensile strength between 1,000
and 2,500 MPa both by cold working and
Cobalt-chromium alloys are used in ageing
demanding applications and have contributed • Hardness up to 60 HRC
significantly to both industrial and biomaterial • Fatigue resistance (as shown in Table 3)
products. • Corrosion resistance
The chemical composition of representative

Number of Cycles Permissible
cobalt-chromium alloys is shown in table 2. Stress (Mpa)
Co-Cr alloys are well suited to high-temperature
104 1,800
creep and fatigue resistant applications. For 105 1,200
this reason, they are good candidates for 106 900
107 700
applications where thermal fatigue is a critical
design issue. Table 3: Fatigue resistance of Co-Cr-Mo alloys
Co-Cr-Mo alloys are considered as reference

materials for artificial orthopaedic implants, The uniform corrosion ( < 0.05 mm/yr) and
most notably as artificial hips and knees. The pitting corrosion resistances are excellent at
addition of nitrogen, of the order of 0.15%, to about 100° C in 10% solutions of acetic acid,
achieve high strength with good ductility and ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate,
without sacrificing corrosion resistance and ferric chloride, formic acid, nitric acid, phosphoric
bio-compatibility. These alloys combine the acid or sodium chloride.
generally contradictory properties of very high
mechanical strength and exceptional corrosion
resistance.
Alloy Name C Cr Ni Mo W Mn Si Fe N Co
X-40 0.50 25.0 10. -- 7.5 0.5 0.9 <2 -- Bal

WI-52 0.45 21.0 -- -- 11.0 0.4 0.4 2 -- Bal
HS-25 0.10 20.0 10.0 -- 15.0 1.2 0.8 <3 -- Bal
ASTMF-75 0.25 28.0 <1 6.0 < 0.2 0.5 0.8 < 0.75 0.15 Bal
Co6 1.1 29.0 <3 < 1.5 5.5 0.6 0.8 <3 -- Bal
MP35N 20.0 35.0 10.0 Bal
Table 2: Nominal chemical composition of various Co-Cr Alloys (wt. %)

In spite of their high cost compared to steels References

and because of their remarkable resistance to
mechanical loading and chemical aggression, I. Dorokhine, E. Bogatcheva, A. Drouginine,
these alloys are used whenever safety V. Sobolevsky et E. Gorbounov
considerations are of prime importance, e.g. “Gisements de Minéraux utiles et leur
springs and fasteners for aerospace applica- prospection” (translated from Russian by T.
tions, medical engineering, surgical implants. Sahakian)
Highly polished components include femoral Publisher: “Ecole Supérieure”, Moscou, 1967
stems for hip replacements and knee cordyles.
J. Talbot
Cobalt alloys for wear resistant applications “Les éléments chimiques et les hommes”
have served in extremely harsh conditions. Publisher: SIRPE, Paris, 1995
Carbon is used in conjunction with chromium
and more refractory elements to produce high A.D. Merriman
hardness, carbide-rich material. Hardness “A Dictionary of Metallurgy”
values ranging from HRC 30 – 70 are Publisher: Macdonald & Evans, London, 1958
obtainable. Co6 is the most common cobalt
wear resistant alloy. Its ability to withstand G. Maliotis
sliding and abrasive wear comes from its “Chromium Uses and Markets”
volume fraction of carbide formed from the Publisher: Industrial Minerals Information
following elements: Ltd, Surrey, 1996
• carbon (1.1% C) P.-J. Cunat

• chromium (29% Cr) and “The Euro Inox Handbook of Stainless Steel”
• tungsten (5.5% W) Publisher: Euro Inox, Brussels, 2002
The cobalt matrix has a high-work hardening A.C. Dere, F. Duffaut and G. de Liege
sensitivity, which combines with the carbide “Historical Background – A Hundred Years of
fraction and allows to achieve excellent wear Science and Industry” in “The Iron-Nickel
resistance associated with a high degree of Alloys” G. Beranger, F. Duffaut, J. Morlet and
corrosion resistance. J.F. Tiers, Scientific Editors,
Publisher: Lavoisier, Paris, 1996
Cobalt is a valuable alloying element for high-
speed tool steels. It has the effect of raising
to softening temperature of ferrite so that
tools made from cobalt-alloy steel can operate
at high temperatures, maintaining their cutting
capacity.

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Alloying Elements in Stainless Steel

and Other Chromium-Containing Alloys

© Euro Inox 2004

Stainless Steels resistance, particularly to chloride stress

2 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 3

In martensitic grades, carbon is added as an

The principal effect of carbon on corrosion

If it is combined with chromium as a separate

4 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

3.1 Discovery, History and

In 1797, the French professor of chemistry,

The principal ore is chromite, a spinel

concentration of the order of 400 ppm. 14

3.2 Physical Properties

Chromium is a silver-grey transition metal

© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 5

3.3 Metallurgical Applications determined by their ability to protect

The properties that distinguish stainless steels

6 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

4.1 Discovery, History and

In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist and

Nickel ore: Garnierite (New Caledonia) –

© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 7

4.3 Metallurgical Applications Nickel promotes the resistance to corrosion of

For further information, please go

8 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

5.1 Discovery, History

Although the metal was known to ancient

Following Scheele’s suggestion, another

Molybdenum remained mainly a laboratory

In 1891, the French arms manufacturer,

© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 9

Paris. Simultaneously, Marie Curie in France 5.3 Metallurgical Applications for

Molybdenum is a silver-white transition metal

For further information, please go

10 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

Chromium and Molybdenum

Stainless Steels Alloy Steels for High-Temperature

PRE = % Cr + 3.3 (% Mo) A survey of the alloys commonly employed

© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 11

Common designation Maximum Tool Steels

Table 1: Typical chromium-molybdenum-containing

12 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

6.1 Discovery, History and Charles Hatchett Award instituted by Companhia

Niobium was discovered in 1801 by Charles

The earliest information about niobium usage

In the 1950s, with the start of the space race,

Pyrochlore is the most abundant mineral

© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 13

FeNb2O6, it is derived by the weathering of 6.4 The Role of Niobium in

6.3 Metallurgical Applications In ferritic stainless steels, the addition of

14 · www.euroinox.org © Euro Inox 2004

7.3 Metallurgical Applications

Only about 5% of the annual world production

© Euro Inox 2004 www.euroinox.org · 15

Titanium is also very effective as a micro alloy Titanium and Niobium

7.4 The Role of Titanium Stabilising elements are added to Fe-Cr-(Mo)

Ti ≥ 0.15 + 4 (%C +%N) % Ti + 4/7 (% Nb) ≥ 0.15 + 4 (C + N)