BECE101 – Basics Electronics

Module 4 : Amplifiers and Oscillators

Dr. Sridhar Chandrasekaran

Assistant Professor (Senior)
VIT University, Chennai
Topics in Module 3
BJT as an amplifier (CE configuration), MOSFET as an amplifier
(CS configuration), Feedback concept, Oscillators - Barkhaunsen's
criteria for sustained oscillation, RC Phase Shift Oscillator, LC
Oscillator.

Weightage
Internals (3 assignments)
External (2- CAT, and FAT)
Midterm – Module 1 - 3
 Coupling Capacitor
• (a) Coupling capacitor; (b) capacitor is an ac short; (c) dc open and ac short

• Capacitor effectively blocks dc voltage and transmits ac voltage

– Impedance of the capacitor is inversely proportional to frequency
• When the frequency is high enough, the capacitive reactance is much
smaller than the resistance
• Almost all the ac source voltage appears across the resistor
 Coupling Capacitor
• Capacitor is called a coupling capacitor as it couples or transmits the ac
signal to the resistor
• Coupling capacitors allow us to couple an ac signal into an amplifier
without disturbing its Q point
• For a coupling capacitor to work properly, its reactance must be much
smaller than the resistance at the lowest frequency of the ac source
• The reactance should be at least 10 times smaller than the resistance at
the lowest frequency of operation
 Coupling Capacitor
• Since dc voltage has a frequency of zero, the reactance of a coupling
capacitor is infinite at zero frequency
• 1. For dc analysis, the capacitor is open.
• 2. For ac analysis, the capacitor is shorted.
• If R = 2 kΩ and the frequency range is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, find the value
of C needed to act as a good coupling capacitor
• By 10:1 rule, XC should be 10 times smaller than R at the lowest frequency
 Base-biased amplifier
• Base bias circuit Base-biased amplifier

• IB = 30µA; IC = βIB = 3 mA; VC = VCC-ICRC = 30 – 3 mx5k = 15 V

 Base-biased amplifier
• Coupling capacitor is used between an ac source and the base.
• The same dc base current exists, with or without the capacitor and ac
source
– Since the coupling capacitor is open to direct current
• Similarly, a coupling capacitor is used between the collector and the load
resistor of 100 kΩ
• The dc collector voltage is the same, with or without the capacitor and
load resistor
• Since this capacitor is open to direct current
• The coupling capacitors prevent the ac source and load resistance from
changing the Q point
 DC and ac components
• The ac source voltage is 100 μV
• Since the coupling capacitor is an ac short, all the ac source voltage
appears between the base and the ground
• This ac voltage produces an ac base current that is added to the existing dc
base current
• In other words, the total base current will have a dc component and an ac
component.
 DC and ac components
• ac collector voltage is inverted 180° out of phase with the input
voltage
• On the positive half-cycle of the ac base current, the collector
current increases, producing more voltage across the collector
resistor
• There is less voltage between the collector and ground
• Similarly, on the negative half-cycle, the collector current decreases
• Since there is less voltage across the collector resistor, the collector
voltage increases
 Base-biased amplifier with Voltage waveforms
• The ac source voltage is a small sinusoidal voltage
• Coupled into the base, where it is superimposed on the dc component of +0.7 V
• The variation in base voltage produces sinusoidal variations in base current,
collector current, and collector voltage
• The total collector voltage is an inverted sine wave superimposed on the dc
collector voltage of +15 V
• Output coupling capacitor couples the ac collector voltage to the load resistor
• This is why the load voltage is a pure ac signal with an average value of zero
 Voltage gain
• The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as
the ac output voltage divided by the ac input
voltage
 Single Base Resistor Biasing
• Common-emitter circuit with a single bias resistor in the base
and dc equivalent circuit

• Quiescent base current is established through the resistor RB

• The coupling capacitor CC acts as an open circuit to dc
– Isolating the signal source from the dc base current
• Q-point values are indicated by the additional subscript Q
 Design Example
• Design a circuit with a single-base resistor to meet a set of
specifications.
• Specifications: The circuit is to be biased with VCC = +12 V. The
transistor quiescent values are to be ICQ = 1 mA and VCEQ = 6 V
 Solution
• Collector resistor

• Base current

• Base resistor
• The transistor characteristics, load line, and Q-point for this
set of conditions
 Solution
• Assume that the resistor values are fixed
• Investigate the effects of the variation in current gain (β)
• Assume the designed resistor values are available
• The base current

• Base current for this circuit configuration is independent of β

• Collector current
• The load line is fixed. However, the Q-point will change
• VCEQ = VCC – ICQ RC
 Solution
• With a single base resistor, the Q-point is not stabilized
against variations in β
• As β changes, the Q-point varies significantly
• Value of 1.13 MΩ for RB will establish the required base
current
• This resistance is too large to be used in integrated circuits
 Emitter-Biased Amplifier
• The base-biased amplifier not used much as an amplifier since it has an
unstable Q point
• Emitter-biased amplifier (either VDB or TSEB) with its stable Q point is
preferred
– Voltage Divider Bias (VDB)
– Two Supply Emitter Bias (TSEB)
• Bypass Capacitor
– Similar to a coupling capacitor
– Appears open to direct current
– Shorted to alternating current
– Not used to couple a signal between two points
– It is used to create an ac ground
 Bypass Capacitor
• R represents the Thevenin resistance as seen by the capacitor
• When the frequency is high enough, the capacitive reactance is much
smaller than the resistance
• Almost all the ac source voltage appears across the resistor
• Point E is effectively shorted to ground
• Called so because it bypasses or shorts point E to ground
• Allows to create an ac ground in an amplifier without disturbing its Q
point
• At the lowest frequency of the ac source
 Example
• The input frequency of V is 1 kHz. What value of C is needed to effectively
short point E to ground?

• Thevenin resistance as seen by the capacitor C

• XC should be 10 times smaller than RTH

• Therefore, XC < 37.5 Ω at 1 kHz
 Voltage Divider Bias (VDB) Amplifier
• Base circuit contains a voltage divider (R1 and R2), the circuit as
called voltage-divider bias (VDB)
 DC Analysis
• To calculate the dc voltages and currents, open all capacitors
• (a) Circuit; (b) Voltage divider; (c) Simplified circuit
 Voltage Divider Biasing and Bias
Stability
• The single bias resistor RB in single Base Resistor Biasing
circuit is replaced by a pair of resistors R1 and R2, and an
emitter resistor RE is added
• The ac signal is still coupled to the base of the transistor
through the coupling capacitor CC
 DC circuit with a Thevenin equivalent
base circuit
• Coupling capacitor acts as an open circuit to
dc
 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
• Applying Kirchhoff’s law around the B–E loop

• If the transistor is biased in the forward-active mode

 Design Example
• Let R1 = 56 k, R2 = 12.2 k, RC = 2 k, RE = 0.4 k, VCC = 10 V, VBE(on)
= 0.7 V, and β = 100
• Analyze a circuit and determine the change in the Q-point
with a variation in β
 Solution

• These results show that the transistor is biased in the active region
 Analysis

For a 3 : 1 ratio in β,
the collector current
and collector–emitter
voltage change by
only a 1.29 : 1 ratio
MOSFET Amplifier
 Biasing
• Establishment of an appropriate dc operating point for the
transistor is known as biasing or bias design
• An appropriate dc operating point or bias point is
characterized by a stable and predictable dc drain current ID
and by a dc drain-to-source voltage VDS
• Ensures operation in the saturation region for all expected
input-signal levels
 Biasing by Fixing VGS
• Most straightforward approach to biasing a MOSFET
• Not a good approach

Values of the threshold voltage Vt,

the oxide-capacitance Cox, and (to a
lesser extent) the transistor aspect
ratio (W/L) vary widely among
devices of the same size and type The use of fixed bias (constant VGS) can result in a
large variability in the value of ID. Devices 1 and 2
represent extremes among units of the same type
 Example
• Consider a MOSFET uses fixed VGS biasing. Find the required value of VGS to
establish ID = 0.5 mA. The MOSFET is specified to have kn’ (W/L) = 1 mA/V2,
Vt = 1 V . Use a power-supply VDD = 15 V. What is the percentage change in
ID when transistor is replaced with another having Vt = 1.5 V.
 Fixed Gate Bias
• Fixing the dc voltage at the gate VG, and connecting a
resistance in the source lead VG = VGS + RSID
• If VG is much greater than VGS, ID will be mostly determined by
the values of VG and RS ID = (-1/RS) VGS + (VG/RS)
• Even if VG is not much larger than VGS, RS provides negative
feedback, which acts to stabilize the value of the bias current
ID.
 Fixed Gate Bias
• When ID increases Equation VG = VGS + RSID indicates that VGS
will have to decrease since VG is constant
• This in turn results in a decrease in ID
• Thus the action of RS works to keep ID as constant as possible
• This negative feedback action of RS gives it the name
degeneration resistance
 Example
• Design the circuit to establish a dc drain current ID = 0.5 mA. The MOSFET
is specified to have Vt = 1 V and kn’ (W/L) = 1 mA/V2. Use a power-supply
VDD = 15 V. Calculate the percentage change in the value of ID obtained
when the MOSFET is replaced with another unit having the same kn’
(W/L) but Vt = 1.5 V
 Solution
• As a rule of thumb for designing this classical biasing circuit, choose RD and
RS to provide one-third of the power-supply voltage VDD as a drop across
each of RD, the transistor (i.e., VDS) and RS. For VDD = 15 V, this choice makes
VD = +10 V and VS = +5 V

• Vov = 1V
Solution
 Solution
• If the NMOS transistor is replaced with another having Vt = 1.5
V, the new value of ID
 Drain-to-Gate Feedback Resistor
• A simple and effective discrete-circuit biasing arrangement
• Utilizes a feedback resistor connected between the drain and the gate
Large feedback resistance RG
(usually in the MΩ range) forces
the dc voltage at the gate to be
equal to that at the drain
(because IG = 0)
 Drain-to-Gate Feedback Resistor
• if ID for some reason changes, say increases, then VGS must
decrease
• The decrease in VGS in turn causes a decrease in ID
• Thus the negative feedback or degeneration provided by RG
works to keep the value of ID as constant as possible
 MOSFET Small-Signal Amplifier
• Simple MOSFET amplifier with input vGS and output vDS
• Voltage transfer characteristics (VTC) of MOSFET
 MOSFET Small-Signal Amplifier
• For vGS < Vt transistor is cut off iD = 0 => vDS = VDD
• As vGS > Vt , the transistor turns on and vDS decreases
• Initially vDS high, the MOSFET will be operating in saturation.
• This continues as vGS is increased until the point B on the VTC
• For greater than that at point B, the transistor operates in the triode
region and vDS decreases more slowly
• The VTC indicates that the segment of greatest slope (and hence
potentially the largest amplifier gain) is that labeled AB
• AB corresponds to operation in the saturation region
• An expression for the segment AB can be obtained by substituting for iD by
its saturation-region value
Biasing MOSFET Amplifier at Q- Point
 The MOSFET amplifier
• The MOSFET amplifier with a small time-varying signal vgs(t) superimposed
on the dc bias voltage VGS
• The MOSFET operates on a short almost-linear segment of the VTC around
the bias point Q and provides an output voltage vds = Av vgs
The MOSFET amplifier
 Basic MOSFET Amplifier Configurations
• There are three basic configurations for connecting the MOSFET as an
amplifier
• Each of these configurations is obtained by connecting one of the three
MOSFET terminals to ground
• Thus creating a two-port network with the grounded terminal being
common to the input and output ports
Three basic configuration without biasing arrangement

Grounded source Amplifier

Basic MOSFET Amplifier Configurations
Load Line and Modes of Operation

The transition point is

the boundary between
the saturation and non
saturation regions and
is defined as the point
where VDS = VDS(sat) =
VGS − VTN .
 Example
• Determine the transition point parameters for a common-source circuit.
Assume transistor parameters of VTN = 1 V and Kn = 0.1 mA/V2
Barkhausens Criteria for Oscillations
• Conditions which are required to be satisfied to operate the circuit as an
oscillator are called as “Barkhausen criterion” for sustained oscillations.
• The Barkhausen criteria should be satisfied by an amplifier with positive
feedback to ensure the sustained oscillations.
• For an oscillation circuit, there is no input signal “Vs”, hence the feedback signal
Vf itself should be sufficient to maintain the oscillations.
• The Barkhausen criterion states that:
• The loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude, that is, | β A | = 1
• The phase shift around the loop is zero or an integer multiple of 2π: ∠ β A = 2 π
n, n ∈ 0, 1, 2,….
• The product β A is called as the “loop gain”. 14
Barkhausens Criteria for Oscillations
A small change In DC power supply or noise component in oscillator circuit
can start oscillation and to maintain oscillation in circuit must satisfy
Barkhausen’s criterion.
From the diagram we can conclude that, feedback voltage (Vf)=βAVIN The
loop gain is equal to unity in absolute magnitude, that is, | βA|=1
| βA| > 1: In this condition, feedback is greater than the input voltage Thus
addition of input wave and feedback wave will result in larger amplitude
wave and as oscillation goes on the amplitude will increase and this can be
harmful for device.
| βA| < 1: In this condition, feedback is less than the input voltage Thus
addition of input wave and feedback wave will result in smaller amplitude
wave and as oscillation goes on the amplitude will gradually decrease and
oscillations will die out.
| βA|=1, In this condition, feedback equal to the input voltage Thus addition
of input wave and feedback wave will result wave having amplitude of input
and as oscillation goes on the amplitude will remain constant and hence a
sustained oscillation is achieved.
RC Phase shift oscillator

Where:
ƒr is the oscillators output frequency in Hertz
R is the feedback resistance in Ohms
C is the feedback capacitance in Farads
N is the number of RC feedback stages.
Advantages and Disadvantages of RC Phase shift
Oscillator
Advantages
• It does not require transformers or inductors.
• It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
• The circuit provides good frequency stability.
Disadvantages
• Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is
small.
• The output produced is small.
LC Oscillator

M- Mutual inductance
between L1 and L2
Advantages Disadvantages and Applications of
Hartley
The advantages of Hartley oscillator are
• The need for components is very less even after including the tapped coil or fixed inductors.
• Frequency of oscillation can be varied by varying the inductance or by using a variable capacitor
• A single coil of bare wire can be used instead of using two separate inductive coils L1 and L2.
• The circuit is very simple and it’s not complex.
• Sinusoidal oscillations with constant amplitude can be generated in the Hartley oscillator.
The disadvantages of Hartley oscillator are
• Sometimes distorted sinusoidal signals will get generated due to the presence of harmonics. This is one of the
major disadvantages of the Hartley oscillator.
• The Hartley oscillator can’t be used as a low-frequency oscillator because the size of the inductor and the value
of the inductor is large.
The applications of Hartley oscillator is discussed below
• The Hartley oscillator is used as a local oscillator in radio receivers. Due to the reason for a wide range of
frequencies, it is a popular oscillator.
• This oscillator is suitable for oscillations in Radio Frequency (RF) range up to 30MHz. ◎ This oscillator used for
producing sine wave with the desired frequency.