Module-1

Introduction :
Evolution of Automotive Electronics -Basic Control System Theory applied to
Automobiles -Overview of the Operation of ECUs -Infotainment, Body, Chassis, and
Powertrain Electronics-Advanced Driver Assistance Systems-Autonomous Vehicles.

Evolution of Automotive Electronics;

1965

• Solid-state radio: Transition from vacuum tubes to solid-state transistors in car radios,
making them more reliable and compact.
• Alternator rectifier: Improved charging system for the car's electrical system,
replacing the generator and providing more consistent power to the battery.

1970

• Speed control: Introduction of cruise control systems, allowing drivers to maintain a

constant speed without keeping their foot on the accelerator.
1975

• Electronic ignition: Replacement of mechanical ignition systems with electronic ones,

improving reliability, efficiency, and performance.
• Digital clock: Introduction of digital displays for timekeeping in vehicles, replacing
analog clocks.

1980

• Electronic voltage regulator: More precise control of the vehicle’s electrical system,
improving battery life and overall electrical performance.
• Electronic engine controller: Early engine management systems that electronically
controlled fuel and ignition systems for better efficiency and emissions control.
• Electronic instrument cluster: Digital dashboards that replace traditional mechanical
gauges with electronic displays.
• Electronic fuel injection: Improved fuel delivery system that enhances engine
performance and reduces emissions compared to carburetors.

1985

• Clock integrated with radio: Combining the clock display with the car radio interface,
simplifying the dashboard design.
• Audio graphic equalizer: Enhanced audio systems with adjustable sound frequencies
for better sound quality.
• Electronic air suspension: Suspension system that uses electronic controls to adjust
ride height and quality for improved comfort and handling.

1990

• Antilock brakes (ABS): Safety system that prevents wheels from locking up during
braking, maintaining traction and control.
• Integrated engine and speed control: More advanced engine management systems
integrating various controls for better performance and fuel efficiency.
• Cellular phones: Introduction of mobile phone integration in vehicles, allowing for
communication on the go.
• Power doors and windows: Electronic controls for operating car doors and windows,
adding convenience for users.

1995

• Navigation systems: Introduction of in-car GPS navigation systems to provide drivers

with real-time directions and mapping.
• Advanced entertainment/information systems: More sophisticated car audio and
video systems, including CD players and early infotainment systems.
• Active suspensions: Suspension systems that automatically adjust to driving conditions
for improved comfort and handling.
2000

• Collision avoidance: Systems that use sensors and radar to detect potential collisions
and warn the driver or take corrective actions.
• Autonomous cruise control: Adaptive cruise control that adjusts the vehicle’s speed
based on traffic conditions.
• Vehicle stability enhancement: Electronic stability control systems that help maintain
vehicle stability during extreme maneuvers.
• CVT (Continuously Variable Transmission): Transmission system that provides a
smooth and efficient transition between gears without distinct steps.

2005

• Hybrid electric vehicles: Introduction of vehicles that combine internal combustion

engines with electric motors for improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions.
• Driver monitoring: Systems that monitor the driver’s behavior, such as alertness and
attention, to improve safety.
• Drive-by-wire: Electronic systems that replace traditional mechanical controls with
electronic controls for steering, throttle, and braking.
• Integrated vehicle controls: Advanced integration of various vehicle systems for
improved performance, safety, and convenience.

2010

• Driver-assist systems: Technologies such as automated parallel parking that assist

drivers with specific driving tasks.
• Integrated telematics: Systems that use mobile devices to provide location-aware
services, such as navigation, emergency assistance, and remote diagnostics.
• Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: Hybrid vehicles that can be charged from an external
power source, allowing for extended electric-only driving range.
Basic Control System Theory applied to Automobiles:

Open loop control system:

An open loop control system is the one in which the output signal is not fed back to the input
of the system. Therefore, an open loop control system is also referred to as a non-feedback
control system.

In case of open loop control system, the output has no control on the control action of the
system. Thus, the open loop control system follows its input signals regardless of the final
results. The block diagram of the open loop control system is shown in Figure. Here, the main
components are: controller and plant (or processing system). The input is supplied to the
controller which produces an actuating signal (or control signal). This actuating single is
supplied to the plant or processing system which is to be controlled.

The major disadvantage of an open loop control system is that it is poorly equipped to handle
the disturbances which may reduce its ability to complete the desired task. Some common
examples of open loop control system are: traffic light system, field-controlled DC motor,
automatic washing machine, immersion rod, etc.

Closed loop control system:

A closed loop control system is the one in which the output signal is fed-back to the input of
the system. Therefore, in a closed loop control system, the control action is a function of desired
output signal. The main components of a closed loop control system are − controller, plant,
error detector or comparator and feedback element which are connected together as shown in
Figure. The error detector accepts input signal and feedback signal to produce an error signal
which is the difference of input and feedback signals. The feedback signal is the sample of
output of the overall system.
Now, the error signal is supplied to the controller to produce an actuating signal which controls
the plant or processing system to produce desired results. Therefore, in the closed loop control
system, the input of the system is automatically adjusted to produce a desired response from
the system. The common examples of closed loop control system are − air conditioner system,
rocket launching system, radar tracking system, human respiratory system, Anti-lock Braking
System (ABS) etc.
Proportional, integral, and derivative Controller

PID controller is a mechanism used in feedback control loops to automatically maintain a

process parameter at a certain level. About 90% of all automatic control systems have this
universal mechanism.
In simple terms, the PID algorithm regulates a process variable by calculating a control signal
that is the sum of three terms: proportional, integral, and derivative. Hence its name. As a result,
it can return a process variable into the acceptable range.
The PID controller is placed in the core of a closed loop system. It can be a device or an
algorithm running on a microcontroller. The plant/system refers to the object under control
which can be an industrial furnace, a motor, or anything else. The plant is controlled with
an actuation device, which can be a motor drive, a heater, a cooler, or anything else that can
drive the system. The parameter that needs to be controlled is called the process variable. It can
be temperature, flow rate, pressure, rotation speed, etc.
The process variable is measured with a sensor that sends the signal back to the controller, thus
providing feedback. The controller receives a desired process value or set point. It is the value
that the system must achieve. This parameter is always set from outside – manually or
automatically by a high-level control system. The controller compares the measured process
variable and the set point. Based on the difference between them, the algorithm computes a
control signal and sends it to the actuation device. It, in turn, drives the plant to the desired
process value (set point). This is the basic working principle of a PID controller.

A Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) controller is a common feedback control system used

in various automotive applications. One such application is cruise control, where a PID
controller can be used to maintain a vehicle's speed at a set point despite varying road
conditions.
Electronics in automobiles:
 Chassis ECUs:
Chassis ECUs focus on vehicle dynamics and safety systems. Their main functions include:
• Braking: Managing anti-lock braking systems (ABS) and electronic stability control
(ESC).
• Suspension: Controlling adaptive suspension systems for improved ride comfort and
handling.
• Steering: Managing electronic power steering (EPS) and active steering systems.
• Traction Control: Enhancing vehicle stability and preventing wheel slip.

Anti- lock braking system

Components Used in an Anti-Lock Braking System

An Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) comprises crucial components, including sensors
to monitor wheel speed, an electronic control unit (ECU) to process data, a hydraulic
modulator for brake pressure regulation, and solenoid valves for rapid brake
release. The Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) comprises four key components:

Speed Sensors
The speed sensors are responsible for calculating the wheel's acceleration and
deceleration. They consist of toothed wheels, electromagnetic coils, or magnets with
Hall Effect sensors that generate signals. As the wheel or differentials of the vehicle
rotate, they induce a magnetic field around the sensor, creating voltage fluctuations.
 The controller receives these signals and interprets the wheel's acceleration and
deceleration based on the voltage readings.
Valves
Each brake line controlled by the ABS is equipped with a valve. In some systems, the
valve operates in three positions. In position one, the valve remains open, allowing
pressure from the master cylinder to pass through to the brakes. In position two, the
valve blocks the line, isolating the brake from the master cylinder, which prevents
further pressure increase to the brakes. Position two is activated when the driver applies
the brake more forcefully. In position three, the valve releases some pressure from the
brake system. Valve clogging is a common issue in ABS systems, impeding their ability
to open, close, or change positions. A malfunctioning valve can prevent the system from
modulating the valves and controlling pressure on the brakes.

Pump
The pump is utilised to restore pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valve releases
the pressure. When the controller detects wheel slip, it sends signals to release the valve.
After the valve releases the pressure applied by the driver, the pump restores the desired
amount of pressure to the braking system. The controller modulates the pump's status
to provide the desired amount of pressure and reduce wheel slippage.
Controller (ECU Type)
The ABS system's controller functions as an Electronic Control Unit (ECU). It receives
information from individual wheel speed sensors, and if a wheel loses traction with the
ground, a signal is sent to the controller. In response, the controller limits the brake
force (Electronic Brakeforce Distribution - EBD) and activates the ABS modulator. The
activated ABS modulator actuates the braking valves on and off, varying the pressure
on the brakes accordingly.

Working of Anti-Lock Braking System

The working of the anti-lock braking system is explained below.
• The Electronic Control Unit (ECU) of the ABS reads signals from each wheel's speed
sensors.
• When the driver applies the brakes abruptly, the wheel decelerates rapidly, increasing
the risk of wheel locking.
• To counter this, the ECU detects the sudden speed decrease and signals the valve to
close, reducing pressure on the brake pad and preventing wheel lock.
• As the wheel starts to accelerate again, another signal prompts the ECU to open the
valve, increasing brake pad pressure and slowing down the wheel.
 • This cycle of brake application and release occurs about 15 times per second during
hard braking, effectively preventing wheel lock and eliminating vehicle skidding.
• With ABS, drivers can steer the vehicle while braking, significantly reducing the risk
of collisions

The Electronically controlled Power-assisted steering

1. Pump
• The pump is responsible for circulating hydraulic fluid through the system. It draws
fluid from the reservoir and pushes it under pressure through the circuit to assist with
steering.
2. Reservoir
• The reservoir holds the hydraulic fluid used in the system. It serves as a storage for the
fluid when it is not being circulated by the pump and collects fluid returning from the
circuit.
•
3. Power Cylinder
• The power cylinder is an actuator that uses hydraulic pressure to assist in steering.
When hydraulic fluid is directed into one side of the cylinder, it creates pressure that
 helps move the steering mechanism, reducing the physical effort required from the
driver.
4. ECU Controlled Solenoid Valve
• This valve, controlled by the Electronic Control Unit (ECU), directs the flow of
hydraulic fluid to the appropriate side of the power cylinder. By controlling this valve,
the ECU can adjust the amount of assistance provided based on factors like vehicle
speed, steering wheel angle, and driver input.
5. Restrictions R and L
• These are flow restrictors placed on either side of the power cylinder. They help control
the flow of hydraulic fluid, thereby influencing the speed and efficiency of the power
assist. "R" likely stands for Right and "L" for Left, indicating the direction the wheel is
turned.
Flow Path
• Hydraulic fluid flows from the pump to the power cylinder. Depending on the direction
the steering wheel is turned, the ECU adjusts the solenoid valve to direct the fluid
through either Restriction R or Restriction L. The fluid’s movement through these
restrictors helps move the piston in the power cylinder, which in turn assists the steering
mechanism. Excess fluid flows back to the reservoir, completing the circuit.

Working of The Electronically controlled Power-assisted steering

Step 1: Starting the System

• Pump Activation: The hydraulic pump is activated when the car's engine is running. It
draws hydraulic fluid from the reservoir.
Step 2: Hydraulic Fluid Circulation
• Fluid Flow: The pump pushes the hydraulic fluid under pressure throughout the system.
The fluid's path is initially open to both the left (L) and right (R) directions towards the
power cylinder.
Step 3: Driver Input
• Steering Wheel Turn: When the driver turns the steering wheel, sensors relay the
direction and intensity of the turn to the Electronic Control Unit (ECU).
Step 4: ECU Processing
• ECU Analysis: The ECU processes the input from the sensors to determine the required
steering assistance based on the steering wheel's position and the vehicle's speed.
Step 5: Directional Control of Hydraulic Fluid
• Solenoid Valve Operation: Based on the ECU’s calculations, it controls the solenoid
valve to direct the hydraulic fluid to the appropriate side of the power cylinder. For
example, if the steering wheel is turned left, the valve will direct fluid to the right side
of the cylinder, and vice versa.
Step 6: Steering Assistance
• Power Cylinder Activation: The hydraulic fluid enters one side of the power cylinder
depending on the steering direction:
• Turning Left: Fluid is directed to the right side of the power cylinder (through
Restriction R). This pressure assists the steering mechanism to move left.
• Turning Right: Fluid is directed to the left side of the power cylinder (through
Restriction L). This assists in steering to the right.
Step 7: Fluid Recirculation
• Return Flow: After exerting pressure in the power cylinder, the hydraulic fluid flows
back towards the reservoir. It passes through the opposite side's restriction (either R or
L, depending on the direction turned).
Step 8: System Reset for Next Operation
• Fluid Collection: The fluid returns to the reservoir where it is collected and stored until
it is needed again. This completes the hydraulic cycle.
Step 9: Continuous Adjustment
ECU Adjustments: Throughout the driving, the ECU continuously receives data from the
vehicle’s sensors and adjusts the solenoid valve operation to provide the appropriate level
of power-assisted steering.
 Electronic damping control

1. Sensors
• These collect data from various aspects of the vehicle's performance and
environmental conditions, including:
• Speed
• Engine revolutions per minute (RPM)
• Brake system pressure
• Steering angle
• Chassis acceleration
• Wheel acceleration
• Throttle position
• Load (weight distribution and changes)
2. Microcomputer-Based ECU (Electronic Control Unit)
• This is the central processing unit of the system. It receives data from the sensors and
processes this information to make decisions about how to adjust the damping of the
suspension.
 • The ECU can change settings based on the mode selected (e.g., sport or comfort),
which affects the response of the dampers.
3. Sport/Comfort Switch
• Allows the driver to select between different damping profiles. For example, 'Sport'
mode typically firms up the suspension for better handling and road feel, while
'Comfort' mode softens the suspension for a smoother ride over bumps and less road
noise.
4. Driver’s Display
• Provides feedback to the driver about the current setting of the damping system and
possibly other diagnostic or system status information.
5. Solenoid Valves
• These are controlled by the ECU to regulate the hydraulic or pneumatic pressure to
the dampers. By adjusting the flow of fluid or air in the dampers, these valves change
the stiffness of the suspension.
6. Spring and Damper
• Each wheel has a spring and damper (shock absorber) unit. The damper’s stiffness is
adjusted by the solenoid valves under the command of the ECU, based on the inputs
from the sensors and the selected driving mode.

Working of Electronic damping control

• Data Collection: Sensors continuously monitor various parameters of the vehicle’s
performance and the road conditions.
• Data Processing: The ECU receives this data and calculates the optimal damping
setting needed to achieve the desired balance of comfort and performance.
• Mode Selection: The driver selects a preferred mode (Sport or Comfort), influencing
how the ECU will interpret the sensor data and adjust the damping.
• Adjustment Execution: Based on the ECU's calculations and the selected mode, it
sends commands to the solenoid valves to adjust the fluid or air flow in the dampers.
• Feedback to Driver: The system may provide real-time data to the driver via the
display, showing the current damping mode or other relevant information.
 Traction control system:

Inputs
The system receives inputs from several sensors and switches:
• Wheel Speed Sensors: Provide data on each wheel's rotation speed, crucial for both
ABS and traction control operations.
• Battery: Supplies electrical power to the system.
• TRAC OFF Switch: Allows the driver to manually disable the traction control
function.
 • Stop Light Switch: Detects when the brake pedal is pressed, activating the brake
lights and signaling the ABS/ECU to potentially engage.
• Throttle Position Sensor: Sends data regarding the position of the throttle, which is
vital for the traction control system to understand how much power is being requested
by the driver.
Process Units
• TRAC ECU (Electronic Control Unit): This is the central processor for the ABS
and traction control systems. It receives data from the inputs, analyzes it, and sends
commands to the appropriate components to adjust the vehicle’s dynamics.
• ECM (Engine Control Module): Receives signals from the ABS/TRAC ECU,
particularly in traction control scenarios where engine output needs adjustment. It
manages engine functions like fuel injection and the operation of shift solenoids.
Outputs from the TRAC ECU include:
• Actuator Solenoids: Engage to control the hydraulic pressure to the brakes during
ABS intervention or adjust brake pressure for traction control.
• Actuator Pump Motor: Works to maintain the necessary hydraulic pressure in the
brake system, crucial during ABS engagement.
• Slip Indicator Light: Illuminates on the dashboard when a slip is detected or when
traction control is actively modulating power or brake pressure.
• TRAC OFF Light: Lights up to indicate that the traction control system has been
manually turned off by the driver.
• ABS Warning Light: Activates to alert the driver of any potential issues within the
ABS system.
Outputs influenced by the ECM include:
• Injectors: The ECM can adjust the fuel injectors to reduce engine power if necessary
to help regain traction.
• Shift Solenoid Valves: Used in automatic transmissions to control gear shifts, these
may be adjusted to reduce engine output during traction control operations.

Working System :
• When wheel slip is detected (like during sudden acceleration on a slippery surface),
the wheel speed sensors send this data to the TRAC ECU.
• The ECU processes this information and may decide to reduce engine torque. It sends
a signal to the ECM, which then adjusts the injectors and shift solenoids accordingly.
• Simultaneously, the ECU may activate the actuator solenoids to modulate brake
pressure to the slipping wheel(s) to regain traction.
• The driver is informed about the system's status and actions through various indicator
lights on the dashboard.
 Body ECUs
Body control modules (BCMs) manage the electrical systems and subsystems within the
vehicle's body. They are responsible for:
• Lighting: Controlling interior and exterior lights (headlights, indicators, ambient
lighting).
• Climate Control: Managing heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems.
• Locks and Security: Controlling door locks, anti-theft systems, and keyless entry.
• Windows and Mirrors: Operating power windows, mirrors, and sunroofs.

•
The provided image is a block diagram of a Body Control Module (BCM) in a vehicle. The
BCM is responsible for managing various body-related functions, such as lighting, door
locks, wipers, and climate control. Let's break down the components and flow of the diagram:
Components and Connections
1. Power Supply
1. Reverse Battery Protection: Prevents damage if the battery is connected
backward.
2. Voltage Regulator: Maintains a consistent voltage level.
3. Tracking LDO: Low Dropout Regulator to provide stable voltage.
4. Watchdog: Monitors the system to ensure it is operating correctly and resets
the MCU if necessary.
5. Supervisor: Provides additional monitoring and control functions for the
power supply.
2. Communication Interfaces
1. CAN Bus: Controller Area Network for communication between different
ECUs in the vehicle.
1. CAN ESD: Electrostatic Discharge protection for the CAN bus.
2. CAN: Interface for the CAN communication.
2. LIN Bus: Local Interconnect Network for communication with lower-speed
components.
1. LIN ESD: Electrostatic Discharge protection for the LIN bus.
2. LIN: Interface for the LIN communication.
3. Microcontroller Unit (MCU)
The MCU is the central processing unit that manages all inputs and outputs, processes
data, and controls various body functions.
4. Discrete Inputs: Digital signals from various switches and sensors (e.g., AC/Heater,
Ignition key, Parking brake, Lighting, Wiper/Washer, Door sensors, Radio anti-theft).
1. MSDI/MUX: Multi-Switch Detection Interface/Multiplexer for handling
multiple digital inputs.
5. Analog Inputs: Analog signals from sensors (e.g., Temperature sensor, Light sensor,
Current feedback).
1. MSDI/MUX: Multi-Switch Detection Interface/Multiplexer for handling
multiple analog inputs.
2. Op Amp: Operational Amplifier to process analog signals.
 6. Diagnostic Inputs: Includes Reference, Comparator, Current Sense, Temperature
Sense, and Logic for diagnostics and monitoring.
7. Output Drivers
High-Side (HS) Switches: Control power to various high-side loads.
Low-Side (LS) Switches: Control power to various low-side loads.
8. Relay Drivers: Control relays for high-current applications.
9. Motor Drivers: Drive motors for windows, mirrors, etc.
10. Current Sense: Monitor current flow to detect overcurrent conditions.
11. Load Drivers: Drive various loads like lights, pumps, etc.
12. LED Drivers: Control LEDs for tell-tale indicators on the dashboard.
Output Functions
• Various output functions controlled by the BCM, including:
• Ignition Relay
• Heater/Defroster
• Exterior Lighting
• Wiper/Washer
• Interior Lighting
• Fuel Pump
• Door Lock
• BTSI (Brake Transmission Shift Interlock)
• Window/Sunroof
Working of Body Control Module (BCM)
1. Power Management: The power supply section ensures that all components receive a
stable voltage and are protected from faults like reverse polarity.
2. Input Handling: Discrete and analog inputs from various sensors and switches are
processed by the MCU. This includes signals for temperature, lighting, ignition, and
more.
3. Processing and Control: The MCU processes the input signals using its onboard logic
and diagnostics capabilities. It makes decisions based on the input data and pre-
programmed algorithms.
4. Communication: The MCU communicates with other ECUs in the vehicle via the
CAN and LIN buses, exchanging information and coordinating actions.
 5. Output Control: Based on the processed input data and communication with other
ECUs, the MCU controls various output drivers to activate relays, motors, lights, and
other actuators.
6. Diagnostics and Monitoring: The system continuously monitors its operation through
diagnostic inputs and watchdog functions to ensure everything is functioning correctly
and to take corrective actions if needed.

Powertrain ECUs
Powertrain ECUs oversee the vehicle's engine and transmission, optimizing
performance and efficiency. Their main responsibilities include:
• Engine Control: Managing fuel injection, ignition timing, and emission controls.
• Transmission Control: Overseeing gear shifts in automatic and semi-automatic
transmissions.
• Hybrid/Electric Power Management: Controlling the interaction between internal
combustion engines and electric motors in hybrid and electric vehicles.
Fuel Efficiency: Implementing strategies for improving fuel economy and reducing
emissions.

Electronic Engine control system:

The provided image is a block diagram illustrating the functions and control of an engine in a
vehicle. Let's break down the components and their interactions:
Key Components and Their Functions
1. Engine Status Sensors
1. Role: Monitor various parameters of the engine, such as temperature, pressure,
and rotational speed.
2. Output: Send data to the Engine Control Unit (ECU) for processing.
2. Engine Control Unit (ECU)
1. Role: Acts as the brain of the engine management system, processing data
from the sensors and controlling various actuators.
2. Inputs: Receives data from the engine status sensors.
3. Outputs: Sends control signals to the ignition system, fuel metering system,
and other components.
3. MAF Sensor (Mass Air Flow Sensor)
1. Role: Measures the amount of air entering the engine through the throttle
plate.
2. Output: Provides data to the ECU for air-fuel ratio calculations.
4. Throttle Plate
1. Role: Controls the amount of air entering the engine based on the driver's
input (accelerator pedal position).
2. Connection: Works in conjunction with the MAF sensor to regulate airflow.
5. Fuel Metering
1. Role: Controls the amount of fuel injected into the engine cylinders.
2. Control: Managed by the ECU based on data from the MAF sensor and other
inputs to maintain the optimal air-fuel ratio.
6.Ignition System
• Role: Controls the timing and delivery of spark to the spark plugs.
• Components: Includes spark plugs, ignition coils, and associated wiring.
• Control: Managed by the ECU to ensure proper combustion timing.
7. EGR (Exhaust Gas Recirculation) Valve
• Role: Recirculates a portion of the exhaust gases back into the engine intake to reduce
nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions.
• Control: Managed by the ECU based on engine load and speed conditions.
8. Engine
• Role: Converts fuel into mechanical energy to power the vehicle.
 • Components: Includes the combustion chambers, pistons, crankshaft, and valves.
9. Driveshaft
• Role: Transfers mechanical power from the engine to the vehicle's wheels.
• Connection: Connected to the engine and powertrain.
10 Catalytic Converter
• Role: Reduces harmful emissions from the engine by converting exhaust gases into
less harmful substances.
• Connection: Placed in the exhaust system after the engine.
11. EGO (Exhaust Gas Oxygen) Sensor
• Role: Monitors the oxygen content in the exhaust gases.
• Output: Provides feedback to the ECU for adjusting the air-fuel ratio.
12. Exhaust Emissions
• Role: Final output of the engine's combustion process, including gases like CO2,
NOx, and unburned hydrocarbons.
• Control: Managed by the catalytic converter and other emission control devices.
Working of Electronic engine control system
1. Data Collection: Engine status sensors continuously monitor various parameters of
the engine and send this data to the ECU.
2. Air Intake Regulation: The throttle plate controls the amount of air entering the
engine. The MAF sensor measures this airflow and sends the data to the ECU.
3. Fuel Injection: Based on the air intake data from the MAF sensor and other inputs,
the ECU calculates the optimal amount of fuel to inject into the engine. The fuel
metering system then delivers this precise amount of fuel.
4. Ignition Control: The ECU controls the ignition system to ensure the spark plugs fire
at the correct time, ensuring efficient combustion.
5. Combustion Process: The air-fuel mixture is ignited by the spark plugs, causing
combustion in the engine cylinders. This combustion generates power, which is
transferred to the driveshaft.
6. Emission Control: The EGR valve recirculates some exhaust gases back into the
engine to reduce NOx emissions. The catalytic converter further processes the exhaust
gases to reduce harmful emissions before they are released into the atmosphere.
7. Feedback Loop: The EGO sensor monitors the oxygen content in the exhaust gases
and provides feedback to the ECU. The ECU uses this information to adjust the air-
fuel ratio for optimal combustion and emission control.
Electronic Transmission control unit:

Key Components and Flow of the TCU

1. Power Supply and Main Switch
1. Battery Supply: Provides the primary electrical power to the TCU.
2. Ignition: Powers the TCU when the ignition is turned on.
3. Main Switch: Controls the power distribution within the TCU.
4. Power Supply: Converts and regulates the incoming power to ensure stable
operation of the TCU components.
2. Inputs
1. Sensor Supply: Provides power to various sensors that feed data into the TCU.
2. Clutch Sensor: Monitors the status of the clutch.
3. Rotational Speed Sensor: Measures the rotational speed of various
components, such as the engine and wheels.
4. Gear Detection Sensors: Identify the current gear position.
5. Pressure Sensor: Measures hydraulic pressure within the transmission system.
 6. Temperature Sensor: Monitors the temperature of the transmission fluid and
other components.
3. Processing Unit
1. Processor: The central processing unit that handles data from sensors, executes
control algorithms, and manages communication with other vehicle systems.
2. Memory: Stores the TCU's software, calibration data, and diagnostic
information.
3. Safety Circuit: Ensures the safe operation of the TCU by monitoring critical
parameters and executing fail-safe protocols if needed.
4. Communication Interfaces
1. Local CAN (Controller Area Network): Facilitates communication between
the TCU and other local ECUs within the transmission system.
2. Vehicle CAN: Enables communication with other vehicle systems, such as the
engine control unit (ECU) and body control module (BCM).
3. Display Interface: Connects the TCU to the vehicle's display system for user
information and alerts.
4. Diagnostics K-Line: A communication protocol used for diagnostic purposes,
allowing mechanics to access the TCU for troubleshooting and maintenance.
5. Outputs
1. Supply Output: Provides power to the various actuators and valves controlled
by the TCU.
2. Gearbox Brake Valve: Controls the braking mechanism within the gearbox for
smoother gear changes.
3. Clutch Valves: Operate the hydraulic clutches to engage or disengage gears.
4. Shift Valves: Control the flow of hydraulic fluid to effect gear shifts.
Selector Valves: Manage the selection of different gear ranges (e.g., park, reverse, neutral,
drive).
Working of the TCU
1. Data Collection: The TCU receives data from multiple sensors monitoring various
parameters such as speed, pressure, temperature, and clutch status.
2. Data Processing: The processor within the TCU analyzes the sensor data and
determines the optimal gear shifting strategy based on the current driving conditions.
3. Communication: The TCU communicates with other vehicle systems via CAN
networks to coordinate actions and share relevant data.
 4. Actuation: Based on the processed data and communication with other systems, the
TCU sends control signals to actuators (e.g., valves) to execute gear changes and
manage the transmission.
5. Feedback and Adjustment: The TCU continuously monitors the system's
performance and makes real-time adjustments to optimize transmission operation and
ensure smooth gear shifts.

Electronic Fuel control system

The primary function of this fuel control system is to accurately determine the mass air flow
rate into the engine. Then the control system precisely regulates fuel delivery such that the ratio
of the mass of air to the mass of fuel in each cylinder is as close as possible to stoichiometry.
The components of this block diagram are as follows:
1. Throttle position sensor (TPS)
2. Mass air flow sensor (MAF)
3. Fuel injectors (FI)
4. Ignition systems (IGN)
5. Exhaust gas oxygen sensor (EGO)
6. Engine coolant sensor (ECS)
7. Engine position sensor (EPS)
The EPS has the capability of measuring crankshaft angular speed (RPM) a well as
crankshaft angular position when it is used in conjunction with a stable and precise electronic
clock (in the controller).

Working of Electronic Fuel control system

The signals from the various sensors enable the controller to determine the correct fuel flow in
relation to the air flow to obtain the stoichiometric mixture. From this calculation the correct
fuel delivery is regulated via fuel injectors. In addition, optimum ignition timing is determined
and appropriate timing pulses are sent to the ignition control module (IGN).
The intake air passes through the individual pipes of the intake manifold to the various
cylinders. The set of fuel injectors (one for each cylinder) is normally located near the intake
valve. Each fuel injector is an electrically operated valve that is either fully open or fully closed.
When the valve is closed, there is, of course, no fuel delivery. When the valve is open, fuel is
delivered at a fixed rate as set by the fuel injector characteristics as well as fuel pressure. The
amount of fuel delivered to each cylinder is determined by the length of time that the fuel
injector valve is open. This time is, in turn, computed in the engine controller to achieve the
desired air/fuel ratio. Typically, the fuel injector open timing is set to coincide with the time
that air is flowing into the cylinder during the intake stroke.
In the closed-loop control mode (also called feedback), a measurement of the controlled
variable is provided to the controller (i.e., it is fed back) such that an error signal between the
actual and desired values of the controlled variable is obtained. Then the controller generates
an actuating signal that tends to reduce the error to zero.
In the case of fuel control, the desired variables to be measured are HC, CO, and NOx
concentrations. Unfortunately there is no cost-effective, practical sensor for such
measurements that can be built into the car’s exhaust system. On the other hand, there is a
relatively inexpensive sensor that gives an indirect measurement of HC, CO, and NOx
concentrations.
This sensor generates an output that depends on the concentration of residual oxygen in the
exhaust after combustion. It will be shown that the EGO sensor output switches abruptly
between two voltage levels depending on whether the input air/fuel ratio is richer than or leaner
than stoichiometry. Such a sensor is appropriate for use in a limit-cycle type of closed-loop
control . Although the EGO sensor is a switching-type sensor, it provides sufficient information
to the controller to maintain the average air/ fuel ratio over time at stoichiometry, thereby
meeting the mixture requirements for optimum performance of the three-way catalytic
converter.
The provided image is a detailed block diagram of an automotive infotainment system, showing
the various components and their interactions. Here's an explanation of each component and
their functions:
Key Components and Functions
 1. Processor
1. The central unit that processes data, executes instructions, and manages
communication between different components of the infotainment system.
2. NFC (Near Field Communication)
1. Allows for short-range communication between the infotainment system and
compatible devices (e.g., for contactless payments or pairing).
3. Digital Radio Analog Front End
1. Handles the reception and conversion of digital and analog radio signals.
4. Clock
1. Provides timing signals for synchronization of the system's operations.
5. BT/WLAN (Bluetooth/Wireless Local Area Network)
1. Enables wireless communication for hands-free calling, audio streaming, and
internet connectivity.
6. GPS (Global Positioning System)
1. Provides location data for navigation and other location-based services.
7. ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter)
Converts analog signals from various sensors into digital data for processing.
8. USB Switch/Protection
• Manages USB connections and protects the system from overcurrent or short circuits.
9. HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface)
• Allows for high-definition video and audio output to external displays.
10. CAN Transceiver (Controller Area Network)
• Facilitates communication with the vehicle's CAN bus for integration with other vehicle
systems.
11. LIN Transceiver (Local Interconnect Network)
• Enables communication with lower-speed vehicle networks, typically used for body
electronics.
12.Ethernet Transceiver
• Provides high-speed data communication with other vehicle systems.
• Other Interfaces
• Additional connectivity options for various external devices and systems.
13.Audio ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) and DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter)
 • Convert audio signals between analog and digital formats for processing and playback.
14.Audio Codec
• Encodes and decodes audio signals for playback and recording.
Audio Amplifier
• Boosts the audio signal power to drive speakers and headphones.
• Display Biasing and LED Backlighting
• Provides power and control for the display panel and its backlighting.
• Video Buffer
• Temporarily stores video data for smooth playback and processing.
• Temperature Sensor
• Monitors the temperature within the infotainment system to manage thermal
performance.
• Touch Screen Controller
• Manages the input from the touch screen, allowing user interaction with the system.
• Video Decoder
• Decodes compressed video signals for playback on the display.

Working of Infotainment control system

Input and Processing: The processor receives data from various inputs such as NFC, digital
radio, Bluetooth, GPS, and USB. It processes this data to execute commands and manage
system functions.
1. Communication: The processor communicates with other vehicle systems through
interfaces like CAN, LIN, and Ethernet transceivers. It also manages wireless
communication via BT/WLAN.
2. Audio and Video Handling:
1. Audio signals are processed through ADC/DAC and codecs, amplified, and sent
to the car audio system or headphones.
2. Video signals are buffered, decoded, and displayed on the main screen or rear
seat entertainment monitors.
3. User Interaction: Users interact with the system via a touch screen, buttons, and voice
commands captured by microphones. The touch screen controller and haptic feedback
provide a responsive user interface.
 4. Power Management: The power supply components ensure stable and efficient power
distribution to all parts of the system, supporting various operational states from full
power to standby.

Advanced Driver assistance system

ADAS system is considered as the advancement from driver assistant system

(DAS). DAS is a system that informs and warns, provides feedback on actions,
increases comfort, and reduces workload by actively stabilizing or maneuvering
the vehicle. ADAS system is considered as a subset of DASs, with increased use
of complex processing algorithms to detect and evaluate the vehicle environment
based on data collected via a variety of sensor inputs. Above Figure demonstrates
the spectrum of DAS capabilities available in production today; the capabilities
considered as ADAS are highlighted with stars. The ADAS usage cases that re
quire full power of real-time processing and intelligence are highlighted with full
stars, whereas half-colored star marked usage cases are relatively more
rudimentary ADAS cases.
ADAS Conceptual Architecture
To support ADAS functions the architecture must include modules for sensing,
processing, intelligence generation, and decision making. Figure is a generic
view of what the ADAS system might look like. The overall system comprises
sensors of various types; a CPU-GPU combination to perform the sensor data
processing, object identification, and early sensor fusion; a “Central Brain” CPU
for performing sensor fusion from different sensor blocks, object tracking,
vehicle control activities to interact with the actuation, and a diagnostics block.

This system is considered as a close-loop control system, where the vehicle

control actuation actions are computed based on received data from sensors. And
the outcome of the ADAS actuation actions is fed back in the loop as sensor input.
All the computing units in ADAS of the vehicular system are generally referred
to as electronic control units (ECUs).
The sensing and actuation ECUs are relatively resource constrained units,
compared with the central processor of ADAS. One of the key advancements in
ADAS design is the concept of “sensor fusion.” This is the process by which the
internal processing takes input from the multiplicity of external sensors and
creates a map of possible impediments around the vehicle. The map then
facilitates the computation that creates a series of possible actions and reactions
through situational analysis.