Basic Elements of Communication:

• Information: Message or information is the entity that is to be transmitted.

It can be in the form of audio, video, temperature, picture, pressure, etc.
• Signal: The single-valued function of time carries the information. The
information is converted into an electrical form for transmission.
• Transducer: It is a device or an arrangement that converts one form of
energy to the other. An electrical transducer converts physical variables
such as pressure, force, and temperature into corresponding electrical
signal variations. For example, a microphone converts audio signals into
electrical signals. The photodetector converts light signals into electrical
signals.
• Amplifier: The electronic circuit or device that increases the amplitude or
the strength of the transmitted signal is called an amplifier. When the signal
strength becomes less than the required value, amplification can be done
anywhere between the transmitter and receiver. A DC power source will be
provided for the amplification.
• Modulator: As the original message signal cannot be transmitted over a
large distance because of their low frequency and amplitude, they are
superimposed with high frequency and amplitude waves called carrier
waves. This phenomenon of superimposing of message signals with a
carrier wave is called modulation, and the resultant wave is a modulated
wave which is to be transmitted.
There are different types of modulation, and they are explained below:
i. Amplitude Modulation (AM): The process of changing the amplitude of the
signal wave by impressing or superimposing it on a high-frequency carrier wave,
keeping its frequency constant, is called amplitude modulation.
ii. Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency modulation is a technique in which
the frequency of the message signal is varied by modulating with a carrier wave.
It is better than amplitude modulation because it eliminates noise from various
sources.
iii. Phase Modulation (PM): The phase of the carrier wave changes the phase of
the signal wave. The phase shift after modulation is dependent on the frequency
of the carrier wave as well. Phase modulated waves are immune to noise to a
greater extent.
• Transmitter: It is the arrangement that processes the message signal into
a suitable form for transmission and, subsequently, reception.
 • Antenna: An antenna is a structure or a device that will radiate and receive
electromagnetic waves. So, they are used in both transmitters and
receivers. An antenna is basically a metallic object, often a collection of
wires. The electromagnetic waves are polarised according to the position
of the antenna.
• Channel: A channel refers to a physical medium such as wire, cables, or
space through which the signal is passed from the transmitter to the
receiver. There are many channel impairments that affect channel
performance to a pronounced level. Noise, attenuation and distortion, to
mention the major impairments.
• Noise: Noise is one of the channel imperfections or impairments in the
received signal at the destination. There are external and internal sources
that cause noise. External sources include interference, i.e. interference
from nearby transmitted signals (cross talk), interference generated by a
natural source such as lightning, solar or cosmic radiation, automobile-
generated radiation, etc.

Types of Noise
• Thermal Noise (Johnson-Nyquist Noise): Cause: Due to the random
motion of electrons in a conductor at a non-zero temperature.
Characteristics: Present in all electronic components and circuits. It is
white noise, meaning its power spectral density is constant across different
frequencies. Impact: Limits the performance of electronic devices and
systems, especially in high-frequency applications.
• Shot Noise: Cause: Arises from the discrete nature of electric charge. It
occurs in electronic components such as diodes and transistors.
Characteristics: Related to the statistical fluctuations in the number of
 charge carriers (electrons) crossing a junction. Impact: Affects devices like
photodetectors and semiconductor devices.
• Impulse Noise: Cause: Result of sudden and brief disturbances, such as
electrical spikes or lightning. Characteristics: Appears as sharp, high-
amplitude spikes in the signal. Impact: Can cause significant errors in
digital communication systems and may be difficult to filter out.
• Atmospheric Noise: Cause: Generated by natural phenomena such as
lightning, solar flares, and other atmospheric conditions. Characteristics:
Can vary in frequency and amplitude, often affecting radio and satellite
communications. Impact: Can introduce random noise into radio signals,
affecting signal quality.
• Man-Made Noise: Cause: Produced by human activities and devices, such
as motors, generators, and electronic equipment. Characteristics: Often
periodic and can be narrowband or broadband. Impact: Can interfere with
communication systems, especially in urban environments with many
electronic devices.
• Quantization Noise: Cause: Occurs in digital systems when continuous
signals are converted to discrete values. It is the error introduced by
rounding or truncating. Characteristics: A type of noise introduced during
analog-to-digital conversion. Impact: Affects the precision of digital
signal processing.
Electromagnetic Spectrum:
Types of electronic communication:
1. One-Way (Simplex) and Two-Way (Full or Half Duplex) Transmission
• One-Way (Simplex) Transmission: Communication where data flows in
only one direction from the transmitter to the receiver. The receiver cannot
send data back to the transmitter. Examples: Television broadcasting, radio
broadcasting, and public address systems. Characteristics: Simple and
cost-effective, but limited in interactivity.
• Two-Way Transmission:
▪ Full Duplex: Communication where data can flow in both directions
simultaneously. Both the transmitter and receiver can send and
receive data at the same time. Examples: Telephones, internet
communication, and modern walkie-talkies. Characteristics: Allows
for simultaneous two-way communication, providing a more
interactive and responsive system.
▪ Half Duplex: Communication where data can flow in both
directions, but not simultaneously. The communication channel is
shared, so only one party can send or receive data at a time.
Examples: Walkie-talkies, CB radios, and traditional two-way
radios. Characteristics: Communication alternates between sending
and receiving, which can lead to delays but is simpler than full
duplex.
2. Analog and Digital Communication
• Analog Communication: Communication where the signal varies
continuously and can represent a range of values. The information is
encoded in a continuous waveform. Examples: AM/FM radio, analog
television, and traditional landline telephones. Characteristics: More
susceptible to noise and distortion, but can represent complex signals like
sound and video in a continuous form.
• Digital Communication: Communication where the signal is discrete,
representing information in binary form (0s and 1s). The data is encoded
into a series of pulses or signals. Examples: Digital television, computer
networks, and mobile phones. Characteristics: More resistant to noise and
distortion, allows for higher data transmission rates, and supports error
detection and correction.
3. Baseband and Modulated Signal Communication
• Baseband Communication: Transmission of signals in their original form
without modulation. The signal is sent directly over the communication
medium. Examples: Ethernet networks, digital data transmission over
short distances, and some local area networks (LANs). Characteristics:
Suitable for short-distance communication and requires a large bandwidth
relative to the data rate. Limited to lower frequencies.
Data Transmission: It refers to the process of sending and receiving digital or
analog data between devices or systems over various types of communication
channels. It involves the transfer of information from a source to a destination
and is fundamental to all forms of digital communication.
A. Serial Transmission: Data is transmitted one bit at a time over a single
communication channel or line. Bits are sent sequentially, one after the other.
• Single Channel: Uses a single data line for transmission, which simplifies
the hardware requirements.
• Bit-by-Bit Transfer: Data bits are sent in a serial fashion, which means
one bit follows another.
• Speed: Generally, serial transmission can be slower compared to parallel
transmission for the same frequency, but advances in technology (such as
higher baud rates) have made serial transmission very fast.
• Distance: Suitable for long-distance communication as it minimizes issues
related to signal degradation and timing skew.
• Examples:
o USB (Universal Serial Bus): Transfers data in a serial manner,
making it versatile and widely used for various devices.
o RS-232: An older serial communication standard used for
connecting computers and peripherals.
o Serial Port Communication: Used in many data communication
applications.
Advantages of Serial Transmission
• Simplicity: Requires only one data line, reducing cable complexity and
connector size.
• Long-Distance: Better suited for long-distance communication due to
reduced signal degradation and interference.
 • Cost-Effective: Lower cost for cables and connectors compared to parallel
transmission.
• Reduced Interference: Fewer lines mean less electromagnetic
interference and crosstalk.
• Scalability: Easier to scale for higher data rates with modern technologies,
such as USB and serial communication protocols.
Disadvantages of Serial Transmission :
• Slower Data Rates: Typically slower than parallel transmission for the
same frequency due to bit-by-bit transfer.
• Latency: Higher latency due to sequential transmission of bits.
• Complex Encoding: Requires sophisticated encoding and synchronization
techniques to manage data integrity.
• Limited Bandwidth: Can be constrained by the bandwidth of the single
channel used for transmission.
• Error Detection: More challenging to detect and correct errors due to the
sequential nature of data transmission.
B. Parallel Transmission: Data is transmitted multiple bits simultaneously over
multiple channels or lines. Each line carries a separate bit of the data.
• Multiple Channels: Uses multiple data lines, each carrying a different bit
of data, allowing for simultaneous transmission.
• Bit-by-Bit Transfer: All bits of the data are sent in parallel, which can
increase data transfer rates.
• Speed: Generally faster for short distances as multiple bits are transmitted
at the same time.
• Distance: Less suitable for long distances due to issues with timing skew
and signal degradation.
• Examples:
o Parallel ATA (PATA): An older interface used for connecting hard
drives and other peripherals.
o Computer Buses: Internal data buses in computers (like the PCI
bus) that transfer data in parallel.
o Printer Interfaces: Traditional printer interfaces often used parallel
communication.
Advantages of Parallel Transmission:
• Speed: Can achieve higher data transfer rates over short distances because
multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously.
 • Bandwidth: Greater potential bandwidth due to parallel data lines.
• Higher Throughput: Simultaneous transmission of multiple bits allows
for faster data transfer over short distances.
• Increased Bandwidth: Utilizes multiple channels for higher effective
bandwidth.
• Simplicity in Encoding: Data is sent in parallel, simplifying encoding and
decoding.
Disadvantages of Parallel Transmission:
• Interference: More prone to electromagnetic interference and signal
degradation over longer distances.
• Timing Issues: Synchronization of multiple lines can be challenging,
leading to potential issues with timing skew.
• Signal Integrity Issues: Crosstalk and interference between lines can
degrade signal quality.
• Complex Cabling: Requires multiple wires and connectors, increasing
cost and size.
• Synchronization Problems: Timing skew between lines can lead to data
errors.
Difference between Parallel and Serial Communication:
Types of Serial Communication:
1. Asynchronous Serial Communication
• Data is transmitted without a clock signal. Instead, start and stop bits
are used to frame the data, allowing the receiver to recognize the
beginning and end of each byte.
• Examples: RS-232, RS-485 (in asynchronous mode), UART
(Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter).
• Characteristics: No clock synchronization is required between sender
and receiver, making it simpler but potentially less efficient for high-
speed communication.
2. Synchronous Serial Communication
• Data is transmitted with a clock signal, which synchronizes the sender and
receiver. Both parties use the same clock signal to time the data
transmission.
• Examples: SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit),
and some variations of RS-485 (in synchronous mode).
• Characteristics: Requires a clock signal for synchronization, which can
increase data transfer rates and efficiency compared to asynchronous
communication.
Concept of Communication System:
1. Bandwidth The range of frequencies that a communication channel can
transmit effectively. It is typically measured in Hertz (Hz).
• Frequency Range: Represents the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies in a signal or channel.
• Impact: Larger bandwidth allows more data to be transmitted
simultaneously, enhancing data transfer rates.
• Example: A network connection with a bandwidth of 100 MHz can handle
a wider range of frequencies compared to a 10 MHz connection.
2. Channel Capacity
The maximum amount of data that can be transmitted through a communication
channel in a given period, usually measured in bits per second (bps).
• Shannon-Hartley Theorem: Defines channel capacity as
C=Blog2(1+SNR), where C is the channel capacity, B is the bandwidth,
and SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio.
 • Impact: Determines the upper limit of data transmission rates for a channel
considering its bandwidth and noise level.
• Example: A channel with a bandwidth of 10 MHz and an SNR of 30 dB
has a theoretical capacity of approximately 60 Mbps.
3. Channel Bandwidth: Often used interchangeably with bandwidth, but more
specifically refers to the range of frequencies allocated to a communication
channel for data transmission.
• Frequency Allocation: Indicates the portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum assigned for communication purposes.
• Impact: Affects the amount of data that can be transmitted; wider channel
bandwidth allows for higher data rates.
• Example: In cellular networks, different channels have specific
bandwidths like 5 MHz or 10 MHz, determining the amount of data that
can be handled.

4. Data Rate: The amount of data transmitted over a communication channel per
unit of time. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second
(kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).
• Units: Expressed as bits per second (bps), indicating the total number of
bits transmitted in one second.
• Impact: Determines how much data can be transferred over a network or
communication channel in a given time period.
• Example: A broadband connection with a data rate of 100 Mbps can
transmit 100 million bits of data every second.
5. Baud Rate: The number of signal changes or symbols transmitted per second
in a communication channel. It is measured in Baud (Bd).
• Units: Expressed as symbols per second. Each symbol can represent one
or more bits, depending on the modulation scheme.
• Impact: Indicates how frequently the signal changes state or how many
symbols are sent per second.
• Example: In a communication system using 16-QAM (Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation), each symbol represents 4 bits. A baud rate of
2,000 Baud would correspond to a data rate of 8,000 bps (2,000 Baud * 4
bits per symbol).
Relationship between Baud and Data Rate :
• Data Rate = Baud Rate × Number of bits per symbol. If each symbol
represents multiple bits, the data rate will be higher than the baud rate.

Example Calculation : For a system with:

• Baud Rate: 2,000 Baud
• Modulation Scheme: 16-QAM (4 bits per symbol)
Data Rate = Baud Rate × Bits per Symbol
Data Rate = 2,000 Baud × 4 bits/symbol
Data Rate = 8,000 bps (or 8 kbps)
Signal to noise ratio:
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) The ratio of the power of the signal to the power
of the background noise. It measures how much stronger the signal is compared
to the noise interfering with it.

• Formula: SNR=Psignal/Pnoise where Psignal is the power of the signal

and Pnoise is the power of the noise.
• Measurement Units: Typically expressed in decibels (dB), calculated as:
SNR(dB)=10log10( Psignal/Pnoise)
• Characteristics:
o High SNR: Indicates a clear signal with minimal noise, leading to
better quality and accuracy in communication.
 o Low SNR: Indicates a signal that is weak compared to the noise,
which can degrade the quality of communication and increase errors.
Example: If a communication channel has: Signal Power: 10 mW, Noise Power:
1 mW , Sol: SNR = 10 mW/1mW=10, SNR(dB) = 10log10(10)=10 dB
Nyquist Theorem
The theorem states that a continuous signal can be completely represented and
reconstructed from its samples if it is sampled at a rate that is at least twice the
highest frequency component of the signal. This minimum sampling rate is
known as the Nyquist rate.
• Formula: fs ≥ 2×fmaxwhere:
o fs is the sampling frequency (samples per second).
o fmax is the maximum frequency present in the signal.
Key Points of Nyquist Theorem:
• Sampling Frequency: To avoid aliasing (overlapping of frequency
components), the sampling frequency must be at least twice the highest
frequency of the signal.
• Aliasing: If the signal is sampled at a rate lower than the Nyquist rate,
higher frequency components will be misrepresented, causing distortion in
the reconstructed signal.
Application of Nyquist Theorem
• Digital Signal Processing: Ensures that analog signals can be accurately
converted into digital form and vice versa.
• Audio and Video Sampling: Used in digital audio (e.g., CDs sampled at
44.1 kHz) and video (e.g., digital TV broadcasting) to maintain quality.
Example of Nyquist Theorem
For an analog signal with a maximum frequency of 5 kHz:
• Nyquist Rate: 2×5 kHz=10 kHz
• Sampling Frequency: To accurately capture the signal, it should be
sampled at least at 10 kHz.
Noise Figure (NF): The Noise Figure (NF) is a measure of how much noise a
device adds to the signal relative to the noise present at its input. It quantifies the
degradation in SNR due to the device itself.
• Formula: NF=10log10(SNRinput/SNRoutput)where:
 o SNRinput is the signal-to-noise ratio at the input of the device.
o SNRoutput is the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the device.
o Noise Figure is typically expressed in decibels (dB).
• Characteristics:
o Lower NF: Indicates better performance, as the device adds less
noise to the signal, preserving a higher SNR.
o Higher NF: Indicates poorer performance, as the device adds more
noise, leading to a lower SNR at the output.
Shannon-Hartley Theorem
• Definition: The theorem provides the maximum rate at which information
can be transmitted over a communication channel without error, given the
channel's bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
• Formula: C=Blog2(1+SNR) where:
o C is the channel capacity (maximum achievable data rate) in bits per
second (bps).
o Bis the bandwidth of the channel in Hertz (Hz).
o SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, expressed as a ratio of signal power
to noise power.
• Characteristics:
o Channel Capacity (C): The theoretical maximum data rate that can
be achieved with an optimal coding scheme.
o Bandwidth (B): The range of frequencies available for data
transmission.
o Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): The ratio of the signal power to the
noise power, which impacts the clarity and reliability of the
transmitted data.
• Implications:
o Higher Bandwidth: Increases channel capacity, allowing for more
data to be transmitted.
o Higher SNR: Improves channel capacity, as a clearer signal allows
for higher data rates.
o Error-Free Transmission: Achieving the maximum capacity
requires optimal coding and modulation techniques to approach the
theoretical limit.
Example
For a channel with: Bandwidth (B): 1 MHz (1,000,000 Hz), Signal-to-Noise
Ratio (SNR): 20 (or 13 dB)
• Channel Capacity (C) = 1,000,000log2(1+20)
Channel Capacity (C) ≈ 1,000,000log2(21)
Channel Capacity (C) ≈ 1,000,000×4.392
Channel Capacity (C) ≈ 4.392 Mbps
Radio Frequency Spectrum: The radio frequency spectrum is the range of
electromagnetic frequencies used for transmitting data wirelessly. It spans from
very low frequencies (VLF) to very high frequencies (EHF), and is divided into
various bands used for different types of communication.
• Electromagnetic waves have different wavelengths and hence frequencies
(measured in Hertz). 1 Hertz (Hz) = 1 wavelength per second
• The electromagnetic spectrum is the complete set of
wavelengths/frequencies, including visible light.
• The radiofrequency spectrum is the set of frequencies (3kHz - 300GHz)
associated with radio waves.
• Radio waves have wavelengths of 1mm to 100km
Frequency Ranges:
o Very Low Frequency (VLF): 3 kHz to 30 kHz
o Low Frequency (LF): 30 kHz to 300 kHz
o Medium Frequency (MF): 300 kHz to 3 MHz
o High Frequency (HF): 3 MHz to 30 MHz
o Very High Frequency (VHF): 30 MHz to 300 MHz
o Ultra High Frequency (UHF): 300 MHz to 3 GHz
o Super High Frequency (SHF): 3 GHz to 30 GHz
o Extremely High Frequency (EHF): 30 GHz to 300 GHz

Creation and Reception of Radio Waves

• Creation:
o Transmission: Radio waves are created by oscillating electric
currents in an antenna. When an alternating current (AC) flows
through the antenna, it generates electromagnetic waves that
propagate through the air.
 o Modulation: Information is encoded onto the radio waves using
modulation techniques such as Amplitude Modulation (AM),
Frequency Modulation (FM), or Phase Modulation (PM). This
modulation alters the wave properties to carry the desired signal.
• Reception:
o Receiving Antenna: A receiving antenna picks up the incoming
radio waves. The antenna converts the electromagnetic waves back
into an electrical signal.
o Demodulation: The received signal is processed to extract the
transmitted information. This involves demodulating the signal to
recover the original data that was encoded onto the radio waves.
What are the better mobile frequencies:
• Different frequencies have different characteristics regarding site coverage
and building penetration.
• Mobile antenna are traditionally a half or quarter awavelength long
(850MHz = 9cm; iPhone = 12cm).
• Lower frequencies have less attenuation (i.e., pass through walls with less
energy loss), so better in-building penetration. Signals also travel further,
giving reduced cellular tower density.
• Higher frequencies give greater bandwidth.
• 850MHz is best suited to sparsely
populated, densely vegetated, or highly
urbanised environments where signal
penetration is the key focus.
• 2GHz is best suited to densely populated
areas where network capacity and
bandwidth is the key focus.
How do mobile network use spectrum:
A. Multiple access technique
• Mechanism for multiple transmitters to broadcast in the same block of
frequency.
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Each call is carried on a
separate frequency channel.
• Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Each frequency channel is
divided into a set of timeslots. One timeslot per call.
• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Radio signals are spread across
a band of spectrum (know as 'spread-spectrum'). Each transmitter is
 assigned a code and the call is encoded. At the receiving end, the call is
isolated by decoding the signal.
B. Duplexing technique
• Mechanism for differentiating uplink (talk) and downlink (receive)
channels.
• Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD): Two frequency bands are used,
one containing the uplink channel (talk) and the other the downlink channel
(receive). FDD requires 'paired' spectrum bands.
• Time Division Duplexing (TDD):
• The uplink and downlink channels are carried in the same frequency band.
• 2G (GSM) uses FDMA/TDMA and FDD
• 3G (W-CDMA) uses CDMA and FDD
• 4G (LTE) uses FDMA/TDMA and FDD or TDD
Management of radio interference
• If signals are broadcast at the same frequency by different transmitters,
they interfere with each other and may be difficult for a receiver to
differentiate, resulting in radio interference.
• Potential legal solutions to interference issues include:
o commercial negotiation and common law litigation;
o regulatory dispute settlement; and
o pre-determined co-ordination of radio emissions.
• In practice, interference is now managed by the combined effects of
licensing, regulations, standards and frequency planning.
• Unintentional emissions are subject to regulations and technical standards.
For example, commercial electronic products must comply with maximum
permitted radio emission requirements.
• Intentional emissions are subject to licensing and frequency planning.
• New Zealand enacted the world's first radiocommunications laws in 1903.
How and why is spectrum regulated ?
i. Spectrum is regulated by Government for two key reasons:
▪ co-ordination of radio emissions so to avoid radio interference;
▪ allocation of scarce radiofrequency spectrum between competing uses.
ii. Radiofrequency signals do not stop at the border, meaning that cross-border
interference disputes arise, requiring an international solution.
iii. Modern spectrum regulation therefore involves the following key elements:
 ▪ international co-ordination of frequency planning;
▪ national frequency planning, typically giving effect to the agreed
international standards;
▪ licensing for intentional emissions, typically by way of class licences,
apparatus licenses and/or spectrum licences;
▪ regulations and standards to minimise unintentional emissions; and
▪ procedures to resolve any remaining interference disputes.
ITU Radio Regulations - international co-ordination
i. The first radio regulations were concluded in Berlin in 1906.
ii. The current "Radio Regulations" are a legally binding intergovernmental treaty
of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
iii. The ITU is a specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates the
global operation of telecommunication networks.
iv. The Radio Regulations incorporate the Final Acts of the World
Radiocommunication Conferences, essentially meetings between all nations to
agree binding resolutions and non-binding recommendations.
v. The Radio Regulations define, among other matters:
• the allocation of different frequency bands to different services;
• procedures for the coordination and notification of frequency assignments by
national governments; and
• mandatory technical parameters to be observed by transmitters.
Class licensing - communal use
• Typically reserved for low emission devices that cause limited interference.
Such devices can co-exist without the need for greater frequency co-
ordination.
• Examples: airport body scanning machines; industrial, scientific and medical
equipment; radio frequency identification (RFID) for stock control and
monitoring; bluetooth and Wi-Fi transmitters
• Class licences are communal so are not held by an entity. A transmitter can
either be used as of right within the scope of the class licence, or a simple
registration under the class licence could occur required.
• Registration may involve payment of a minimal registration fee.
• The class licence will typically set out requirements regarding the permitted
radiofrequency emissions and the permitted maximum power of those
emissions.
 • In some jurisdictions, class licensed frequency bands may also be referred
to as 'unlicensed' bands.
Apparatus licensing - particular equipment
• A licence is issued for a particular transmitter at a particular location for a
particular use.
• The licence gives 'first in time' priority to the holder of the licence against
any other entity in relation to any disputes over interference.
• Apparatus licences are normally acquired over the counter' and tend to be
short term in nature, typically between 3 and 5 years.
• An administrative pricing arrangement usually applies, often in the form of
annual fees plus an up-front application fee. These fees may involve a
scarcity premium as well as administrative cost recovery.
• Apparatus licences do not confer exclusivity, so have little intrinsic value
(except providing a right to operate a particular transmitter).
• Most regimes have a combination of class, apparatus and spectrum
licensing, including hybrid licensing constructs. Australia - all 3;
Philippines - hybrid; Japan - apparatus, but undergoing reform.

Spectrum licensing - exclusive use

• A spectrum license for a particular band gives the holder of the licence the
exclusive right to use and manage the frequency band in a pre-determined
geographic area.
• The licences are long-term in duration, typically 15 - 25 years. They are
intended to correspond with the expected life of a mobile network.
• A spectrum licence normally confers various rights and obligations on the
licensee. However, the licensee normally has a reasonable amount of
flexibility regarding the use of the band.
• Spectrum licences normally involve a 'market based approach' and hence
may be traded and transferred. The licensee can normally sub-licence the use
of the spectrum to other users.
• In most jurisdictions, mobile networks would have been deployed under
spectrum licences. However, this is not always the case.
• Telecommunications regulators sometimes place limits, or caps, on the
amount of spectrum that can be licensed to a single operator, thus ensure that
an incumbent cannot hoard spectrum as a barrier to entry.
Key commercial issues
• Country and regulatory risks remain a key issue Example: Indian 2G
spectrum scandal (2008)
• Politicians and government officials in India were alleged to be illegally
undercharging for 2G spectrum licenses, resulting in losses to Indian
taxpayers estimated at up to USD 27 billion
• Various criminal prosecutions are continuing in India, including a
prosecution of the former Minister of Communications. Various allegations
of corruption have also been made in those prosecutions.
• The Supreme Court of India declared the allotment of 2G spectrum as
"unconstitutional and arbitrary" and quashed all 122 licenses issued in
2008. As a result, ownership of the spectrum reverted to the State.
• A number of telecoms operators lost hundreds of millions of dollars as a
result. Operators reputed to have suffered substantial losses include
Telenor, Axiata, Etisalat, Batelco and Tata.
• Ranked by TIME as #2 on global abuses of power list, beaten by Watergate.
Ownership and transferability
• Key issues in due diligence:
i. What is the bundle of ownership rights in the spectrum?
ii. Can such ownership rights be transferred and, if so, how?
• Most jurisdictions consider spectrum the exclusive property of the State.
However, the State may confer property rights in spectrum to private entities.
• The bundle of ownership rights conferred by the State depends on the
particular regime. In most instances, a statutory "right of use" is conferred.
i. At the more flexible end of the continuum, such rights are fully tradeable
and may be sub-divided and sub-licensed. Transfer can occur by way of
simple registration without any need for formal regulatory consents.
ii. At the less flexible end of the continuum, such rights are allocated to a
particular entity for its personal use for a specific telecoms purpose and
cannot be transferred, sub-licensed or used by any other entity.
• The various Asian jurisdictions lie on a continuum between these to
extremes. Different models also apply for different licence types and
frequency bands.
Licensing fees and renewals
• Licensing fees are affected by the licensing model
• If spectrum licences are allocated on an administrative basis (eg beauty
parade), then licence fees are typically set as periodic annual charges.
 • If spectrum licences are allocated by auction or tender, the licence fees are
determined by a competitive bid process.
• Key questions include:
i. should fees be based on admin cost recovery?
ii. should fees include a scarcity premium for congested bands in order to
encourage efficiency?
iii. should fees be market benchmarked?
• Many of the original 2G spectrum licences are due for renewal. A key issue
is whether such licences should be renewed or reallocated and, if so, at what
price.
Restrictions on use
• Spectrum licences typically contain various restrictions on the use of the
spectrum.
• Generally all spectrum licences will:
i. restrict radio emissions within certain levels and apply international
standards as set out in the Radio Regulations;
ii. apply national frequency plans, so will be restricted to a general use (e.g.,
mobile cellular networks, satellite networks).
• Restrictions on use become an issue where the spectrum is not technology-
neutral and sets out the permitted use with a high degree of granularity.
• Example: can a 2G GSM or Wireless Broadband licence be used for 4G LTE?
• In some instances, the spectrum licence may be tied to the underlying
telecommunications licence. The telecoms licence may then require the
licensee to deploy a particular network and technology.
Risk of resumption
• Generally, all spectrum licences involve some risk of resumption. The State
normally reserves for itself the right to revoke licences if required due to
changes in radiofrequency plans.
• Given that radiofrequency planning is normally linked to the ITU Radio
Regulations, in practice the risk of resumption is low. Many nations also
provide for compensation if resumption occurs.
• The greater risk arises in the context of failures to meet various licence
conditions. A contravention of a licence condition can sometimes result in
the forfeiture of the licence.
• Some jurisdictions also impose use it or lose it conditions on spectrum
licences (or network licences to which spectrum licences are linked).
• These may be automatic or at the discretion of the regulator.
 • If a network is not deployed to meet certain requirements by certain
milestones, the licence may be revoked by the state and reallocated to
another party.
Spectrum auctions
• Because spectrum is centrally allocated by the State, it is possible for the
State to extract a scarcity rent for the allocation of certain spectrum that is
in high demand.
• An auction is generally recognised as the means for the State to extract an
optimal scarcity rent.
• Australia used a 'combinatorial clock' auction for the allocation of its
700MHz spectrum and 2.5GHz spectrum in 2013. (Multiple bidding
rounds for multiple bands of spectrum).
• A reserve price is normally set for the auction and bids are submitted
electronhally in each round via sophisticated software.
• A policy issue with spectrum auctions is that they result in the payment of
substantial scarcity rents. Accordingly, they tend to favour incumbents with
deep pockets as a barrier to entry. They also result in higher costs that are
ultimately paid by end users of mobile services.

Case study: Digital dividend spectrum

• Analogue broadcasting technologies (radio and television) have
traditionally used substantial spectrum in bands 174 - 230 MHz (VHF) and
470 - 862 MHz (UHF). These bands provide greater coverage and high
building penetration.
• Digital broadcasting technologies use much less spectrum. More digital
channels can be offered and some of the spectrum can be reallocated for
other purposes.
• The ITU redesignated the 700MHz frequency band in 2007 so that it could
be used for either mobiles or broadcasting. The band provides greater
coverage and penetration, but is still appropriate for mobiles.
• As the digital switchover from analogue to digital television occurs, the
digital broadcasters will use different spectrum and 700MHz will be free.
• The ability to auction the 700MHz spectrum has provided Governments
with a so-called 'digital dividend'.
• The 700MHz spectrum is 'waterfront property', so is particularly valuable.
Types of Transmission Media

• In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical

path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through
which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is
broadly classified into the following types:

Guided Media: It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.

Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using
physical links.

Features of guided media : High Speed, Secure, Used for comparatively shorter
distances
There are major types of Guided Media:
1. Pair Cable
(i) Twisted Pair Cable – It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor
wires wound about each other. Generally, several such pairs are bundled
together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
(ii) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper
wires twisted around one another. This type of cable has the ability to
block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this
purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages: Least expensive, Easy to install, High-speed capacity
Disadvantages:
• ⇢ Susceptible to external interference
• ⇢ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• ⇢ Short distance transmission due to attenuation
Applications: Used in telephone connections and LAN networks
(iii) Shielded Twisted Pair
(STP): This type of cable
consists of a special jacket (a
copper braid covering or a
foil shield) to block external
interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data
channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
• ⇢ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• ⇢ Eliminates crosstalk ⇢ Comparatively faster
Disadvantages: ⇢ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture ⇢ More
expensive ⇢ Bulky
Applications: The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in
extremely cold climates, where the additional layer of outer covering makes it
perfect for withstanding such temperatures or for shielding the interior
components.
2. Coaxial Cable – It has an
outer plastic covering
containing an insulation
layer made of PVC or Teflon
and 2 parallel conductors
each having a separate
insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
• High Bandwidth Better noise Immunity Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages: Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
Applications: Radio frequency signals are sent over coaxial wire. It can be used
for cable television signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network
connections (like Ethernet), and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and
receivers to their antennas.
3. Optical Fiber Cable: It
uses the concept of refraction
of light through a core made
up of glass or plastic. The
core is surrounded by a less
dense glass or plastic
covering called the cladding.
It is used for the transmission
of large volumes of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division
Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth, Lightweight, Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages: Difficult to install and maintain---High cost--Fragile
Applications:
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in
designing the interior and exterior of automobiles.
4. Stripline Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line
medium invented by Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research
Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar transmission line.
It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a
waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the
ground plane which are usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
5. Microstripline In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground
plane by a layer of dielectric.
Unguided Media: It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission
media. No physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals.
Features: The signal is broadcasted through air---Less Secure--Used for larger
distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
(i) Radio waves
– These are easy
to generate and
can penetrate
through buildings.
The sending and
receiving
antennas need not
be aligned.
Frequency
Range:3KHz –
1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radio waves for
transmission.

Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves – It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving
antennas need to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the
signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency
Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
To understand the propagation of electromagnetic waves, it is important to
understand what is an electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic waves are created
as a result of vibrations produced between an electric field and the magnetic field.
The propagation of electromagnetic waves through the vacuum happens at a
speed of 3*108ms-1 and the propagation of electromagnetic waves through any
medium happens at a speed which is less than that of the speed in the vacuum.
iii. Infrared (IR) Waves: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from
about 300 GHz to 400 THz. Infrared waves are used for short-range
communication.
 • Propagation: Requires line-of-sight and is easily blocked by obstacles.
Sensitive to weather conditions like fog and rain.
• Applications: Used in remote controls, short-range wireless
communication (e.g., IR data transmission), and some types of indoor
wireless networking.
• Frequency Bands: Includes near-infrared (0.75 µm to 1.5 µm) and far-
infrared (30 µm to 1 mm).
Radio wave propagation refers to the behavior of radio waves as they travel
through the atmosphere and space. Understanding radio wave propagation is
crucial for designing and optimizing communication systems, ensuring that
signals reach their intended destinations with minimal interference and loss of
quality.
Types of Radio wave propagation
A. Ground Wave (Surface Wave):
Radio waves that travel along the
Earth's surface. They follow the
curvature of the Earth and can travel
over long distances, especially at lower
frequencies.

• Frequency Range: Typically below 2 MHz (Medium Frequency or MF

and below).
• Propagation: Follows the Earth's surface, bending with the curvature. Can
diffract around obstacles like hills and buildings.
• Applications: Used for AM radio broadcasting and maritime
communication.
• Advantages: Good for long-distance communication over the horizon.
• Limitations: Limited to lower frequencies; signal strength decreases with
distance and is influenced by ground conductivity and terrain.
B. Space Wave (Tropospheric Wave) Radio waves that travel through the
troposphere (the lowest layer of
the atmosphere) and are
primarily used for line-of-sight
communication. These waves
can also reflect off the ionosphere
to extend their range.
 • Frequency Range: Typically from 30 MHz to 3 GHz (VHF, UHF, and
higher frequencies).
• Propagation: Travels in straight lines and can be affected by obstacles and
the Earth's curvature. May reflect off the ionosphere in some cases.
• Applications: Used for TV and FM radio broadcasting, cellular networks,
and microwave communication.
• Advantages: Provides high bandwidth and data rates. Suitable for line-of-
sight communications.
• Limitations: Limited range due to the Earth's curvature and obstacles; may
require repeaters for long-distance communication.
C. Sky Wave (Ionospheric
Wave): Radio waves that are
reflected or refracted by the
ionosphere, a layer of the Earth's
atmosphere ionized by solar
radiation. These waves can travel
long distances by bouncing off
the ionosphere back to Earth.
• Frequency Range:
Typically from 3 MHz to 30 MHz (HF bands).
• Propagation: Bounces off the ionosphere and returns to Earth, allowing
for long-distance communication beyond the horizon.
• Applications: Used for shortwave radio broadcasting, amateur radio (HF
bands), and international communication.
• Advantages: Can cover vast distances and reach areas beyond the line-of-
sight.
• Limitations: Signal quality can be affected by solar activity, ionospheric
conditions, and time of day. Propagation can vary significantly
Line-of-Sight Propagation refers to the transmission of radio waves directly
from the transmitter
to the receiver in a
straight line. This
mode of
propagation is
characterized by the
lack of obstacles
between the transmitter and receiver, allowing the signal to travel directly without
significant reflection, diffraction, or scattering.
Characteristics of Line-of-Sight Propagation
1. Direct Path: The signal travels along a straight line path from the
transmitter to the receiver. This direct path is crucial for effective
communication using line-of-sight propagation.
2. Frequency Range: Typically used for higher frequencies, including UHF
(Ultra High Frequency, 300 MHz to 3 GHz) and SHF (Super High
Frequency, 3 GHz to 30 GHz) bands. Common in microwave
communications, satellite communications, and certain types of wireless
networks.
3. Distance Limitations: The effective range is limited by the curvature of
the Earth and any obstacles in the environment. The signal can be
obstructed by buildings, hills, or other structures. The line-of-sight distance
is determined by the height of the antennas and the curvature of the Earth.
Higher antennas can extend the line-of-sight range.

Applications:

• Microwave Links: Used for point-to-point communication, such as

connecting two buildings or relay stations.
• Satellite Communication: Requires direct line-of-sight between the
satellite and ground stations.
• Cellular Networks: Base stations and mobile devices often use line-of-
sight principles for certain communication links.

Effective Line-of-Sight (LOS) Range The effective LOS range, accounting for
curvature and height of antennas, is given by:

Where:
• d = Effective line-of-sight distance in kilometers (km)
• h1 = Height of the first antenna in meters (m)
• h2 = Height of the second antenna in meters (m)
• Optical line of Sight: d=3.57√ℎ
• Effective, or radio, line of sight, d=3.57√𝐾ℎ
• d = distance between antenna and horizon (km), h = antenna height (m)
• K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3
Tropospheric Propagation refers to the transmission of radio waves through the
troposphere, the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, where radio waves can be
refracted or bent due to changes in atmospheric conditions. This type of
propagation is used for communication over distances that extend beyond the
line-of-sight range, taking advantage of the refraction effects in the troposphere.
Characteristics of Tropospheric Propagation
1. Refraction and Bending:
• Refraction: Radio waves bend as they pass through regions of
varying atmospheric density in the troposphere. This bending allows
signals to travel beyond the horizon.
• Impact: Enables communication over distances greater than the
line-of-sight range and can facilitate long-range radio broadcasts.
2. Frequency Range:
• Typically Used: Frequencies from 3 MHz to 30 MHz (HF bands),
but tropospheric propagation can also affect higher frequencies such
as VHF (30 MHz to 300 MHz) under certain conditions.
• Applications: Used in shortwave radio broadcasting, amateur radio
(HF bands), and some types of long-distance communication.
3. Distance:
• Extended Range: Can extend communication distances significantly
beyond the line-of-sight range due to the bending of radio waves.
• Variation: The effective range varies depending on atmospheric
conditions, frequency, and time of day.
4. Applications:
• Shortwave Radio: Provides long-distance broadcasting, including
international news and entertainment.
• Amateur Radio: Allows amateur radio operators to communicate
over long distances.
• Emergency Communications: Used for long-range
communications in emergency situations when other forms of
communication are unavailable.
Polarization
It refers to the orientation of the electric field vector of a radio wave. It describes
the way the electric field oscillates in space as the wave propagates.
Understanding polarization is crucial for designing and optimizing
communication systems, as it affects signal reception and transmission.
Types of Polarization
A. Horizontal Polarization: In horizontal polarization, the electric field of the
radio wave oscillates parallel to the Earth's surface. This means that if you
imagine the radio wave traveling horizontally, the electric field vector is oriented
horizontally.
• Electric Field Orientation: The electric field oscillates in a plane that is
parallel to the ground.
• Antenna Design: Antennas designed for horizontal polarization have
elements oriented horizontally.
• Signal Reception: Receivers with horizontally polarized antennas will
effectively receive signals that are also horizontally polarized.
Applications of Horizontal Polarization:
• Broadcasting: Often used in AM and FM radio broadcasting.
• Television: Traditional terrestrial TV broadcasts use horizontal
polarization.
• Communication Systems: Used in various point-to-point communication
systems.
Horizontal Polarization Advantages:
• Broad Compatibility: Commonly used in traditional broadcasting
(AM/FM, TV).
• Simpler Antennas: Easier and cost-effective antenna design.
• Less Interference from Vertical Objects: Better in environments with
vertical obstacles.
• Consistent Coverage: Effective for wide-area broadcasts.
• Less Building Penetration Loss: Performs better through building walls.
Disadvantages Polarization Advantages:
• Multipath Interference: Susceptible to interference from vertical
reflections.
• Polarization Mismatch: Requires alignment; mismatches cause signal
loss.
• Limited Foliage Penetration: Attenuates more through natural obstacles.
• Horizontal Obstacle Interference: Affected by horizontal structures.
• Directional Coverage: Less effective in varying-height environments.
B. Vertical Polarization: In vertical polarization, the electric field of the radio
wave oscillates perpendicular to the Earth's surface. This means that if you
imagine the radio wave traveling vertically, the electric field vector is oriented
vertically.
 • Electric Field Orientation: The electric field oscillates in a plane that is
perpendicular to the ground.
• Antenna Design: Antennas designed for vertical polarization have
elements oriented vertically.
• Signal Reception: Receivers with vertically polarized antennas will
effectively receive signals that are also vertically polarized.
Applications of Vertical Polarization:
• Broadcasting: Often used in FM radio broadcasting and some television
broadcasts.
• Communication Systems: Common in mobile communications, including
cellular networks.
• Aviation and Maritime: Used in aviation and maritime communication
systems for better signal propagation.
Advantages Vertical Polarization:
• Better Obstacle Penetration: More effective through buildings and
foliage.
• Reduced Multipath Interference: Less affected by horizontal reflections.
• Modern System Compatibility: Common in mobile and contemporary
systems.
• Urban Environment Performance: Effective in areas with vertical
structures.
• Versatile: Works well in dynamic environments with changing
orientations.
Disadvantages Vertical Polarization:
• Polarization Mismatch: Requires precise alignment; mismatches cause
signal loss.
• Horizontal Structure Interference: Susceptible to interference from
horizontal surfaces.
• Higher Antenna Costs: May require more complex systems.
• Potential Signal Degradation: Can degrade with reflections from surfaces
aligned with the electric field.
• Directional Limitations: Performance varies with antenna orientation and
height.
Attenuation
Attenuation is a problem caused by the medium. When the signal is propagating
for a longer distance through a medium, depending on the length of the medium,
the initial power decreases. The loss in initial power is directly proportional to the
length of the medium. Using amplifiers, the signal power is strengthened or
amplified so as to reduce attenuation. Also, digital signals are comparatively less
prone to attenuation than analogue signals.
Effect of attenuation

• Distortion It is also another type of channel problem. When the signal is

distorted, the distorted signal may have a frequency and bandwidth
different from the transmitted signal. The variation in the signal frequency
can be linear or non-linear.
• Receiver An arrangement that extracts the message or information from
the transmitted signal at the output end of the channel and reproduces it in
a suitable form as the original message signal is a receiver.
• Demodulator It is the inverse phenomenon of modulation, i.e., the process
of separation of the message signal from the carrier wave takes place in the
demodulator. The information is retrieved from the modulated wave.
• Repeaters Repeaters are placed at different locations in between the
transmitter and receiver. A repeater receives the transmitted signal,
amplifies it and sends it to the next repeater without distorting the original
signal.