Grade 10

English Booklet

Index:

Basic English Exercises

Parts of Speech

Grammar all Tenses

Writing (punctuation)

Writing a persuasive essay

Elements of Literature

Elements of Poetry

Reading

Basic English and exercises 

a) Suffixes and Prefixes

b) Parts of Speech

a) Suffixes and Prefixes:

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Prefixes and suffixes are grammatical “affixes” (prefixes come before the root word, and suffixes
come after).

In very simplistic terms, prefixes change the meaning of words, and suffixes change their form
(including plural, tense, comparative, and part of speech).

Prefixes – Change the Meaning of Words

Some of the most common prefixes are:

Prefix Meaning Examples

un- not unhappy, unsuccessful, unable
re- again redo, return, reappear
dis- not, undo disappear, disgrace, discontinue
inter- between International, internet, intermission
non- not nonsense, nonfiction, nonviolent
pre- before predawn, prefix, precaution
post- after postpone, postscript, postwar
poly- many polygamy, polyester, polyglot
sub- under subterranean, submarine,
subordinate
co- together cooperate, collaborate, coordinate

Suffixes – Change the Form of Words

Some of the most common suffixes are:

Form Suffix Meaning Examples

Noun -age action or process marriage, voyage, pilgrimage
-ence state or quality of violence, absence, reticence
-ant one who servant, immigrant, assistant
-arium place for aquarium, planetarium, auditorium
-tion state or quality of starvation, inspiration, tension
-cy state or quality of accuracy, bankruptcy, conspiracy
-dom state or quality of freedom, boredom, wisdom
-eer person engineer, puppeteer, auctioneer
-ectomy surgical removal of tonsillectomy, appendectomy
-ent one who superintendent, resident, regent
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 -eur one who chauffeur, masseur
-hood state or quality of childhood, falsehood, neighborhood
-i plural alumni, foci, syllabi
-ism doctrine of capitalism, socialism, patriotism
-wright one who works with playwright, shipwright
-ology study of biology, etymology, psychology
Adjective -able Is, can be comfortable, durable, perishable
-acious inclined to be audacious, loquacious, spacious
-ant inclined to be vigilant, pleasant, defiant
-ative inclined to be demonstrative, talkative, pejorative
-ic characteristic of comic, poetic, historic
-y characteristic of fruity, sunny, chewy
Verb -ble repeated action stumble, squabble, mumble
-ed past tense wanted, hated, looted
-en made of strengthen, fasten, frighten
-ify to make terrify, falsify, vilify
-ize to make standardize, computerize, pulverize
Adverb -ly resembling slowly, kindly, seriously
-ward direction forward, backward, onward
-ways manner sideways, crossways

Exercise:

Add a suitable prefix or suffix and make new words:

(ship – hood – un – after – ion – less – ful – ment – im – ous – ness)

Child………….. Wonder………….
……………….noon Count………..
Relation……….. ………..patient
………….happy Excite………..
Danger…………. Perfect…………
Use…………. Use………..
………….perfect ………..useful
Mother…………… Happy…………..

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Add a prefix to each of the following words to make new words:

mis- / anti- / im- / in- / il- / un- / dis- / non- / pre- / en-

…….possible …….understand …….attentive …….polite …….place

…….depressive …….employed …….turn …….vision …….organized
…….agree …….able …….justice …….lead …….gravity
…….happy …….legal …….like …….write …….school
…….active …….regular …….logical …….sense …….stop
…….known …….fiction …….expected …….historic …….cursor
…….loyal …….cover …….dote …….dress …….courage
…….do …….able …….reliable …….face …….climax

Add a suffix to each of the following words to make new words:

-y/ -ly / -less / -ful / -er / -or / -ness / -able / -ment / -al / -ary / -ous / -ian / -ity

fear……. teach……. help……. brother……. happy…….

accident……. photocopy……. understand……. loud……. courage…….
thought……. kind……. care……. home……. fashion…….
friend……. water……. jealous……. speech……. tax…….
popular……. clear……. hope……. mad……. suit…….
sugar……. rely……. prime……. pain……. danger…….
fame……. comfort……. fog……. environment… act…….
use……. Brazil……. drink……. encourage……. deplore…….

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Put The Words In Brackets In The Appropriate Form (Use Prefixes Or Suffixes):

1. He was acting in a very ……………………… way. (child)

2. She looked …………………..She started to cry. (happy)
3. He passed his exam. He was ……………………for the second time. (succeed)
4. The team that he supported was able to win the………………………………….
(champion)
5. I couldn't find any ……………………..in his idea. (weak)
6. He wants to be a …………………………….. when he grows up. (mathematics)
7. There were only a ………………………. of people at the match. (hand)
8. The road was too narrow, so they had to ………………………… it. (wide)
9. I think that you should ……………………………… your decision. It may not be the
best thing to do. (consider)
10.You need a ………………………… of motivation, organization and hard work to
realize your dreams. (combine)

b) Parts of speech:

1- Nouns

A noun is a word that names a person, place, concept, or object. Basically, anything that names a
“thing” is a noun, whether you’re talking about a basketball court, San Francisco, Cleopatra …..
etc.

2- Adjectives

Adjectives are the words that describe nouns. You might say the movie was funny, sad…. etc .
When you’re describing the movie with these words, you’re using adjectives. An adjective can go
right before the noun it’s describing (“I have a black dog”), but it doesn’t have to. Sometimes,
adjectives are at the end of a sentence (“My dog is black”).

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 3- Verbs

Go! Be amazing! Run as fast as you can! Win the race! Congratulate every participant who put in
the work and competed!

Those bolded words are verbs. Verbs are words that describe specific actions,
like running, winning, and being amazing. They are referred to as action verbs.

Not all verbs refer to actions, though. Verbs that refer to feelings or states of being like to
love and to be, are known as nonaction verbs.

4- Adverbs

An adverb is a word that describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb.

I entered the room quietly.

Quietly is describing how you entered (verb) the room.

A cheetah is always faster than a lion.

Always is describing how frequently a cheetah is faster (adjective) than a lion.

5- Pronouns

Pronouns are words you substitute for specific nouns when the reader or listener already knows
which specific noun you’re referring to.

You might say, “Jennifer was supposed to be here at eight,” then follow it with “She’s always late;
next time I’ll tell her to be here a half hour earlier.”

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Instead of saying Jennifer’s name three times in a row, you replace it with she and her, and your
sentences remained grammatically correct.

6- Prepositions

Prepositions tell you the relationships between other words in a sentence.

You might say, “I left my bike leaning against the garage.” In this sentence, against is the
preposition because it tells us where you left your bike.

Here’s another example: “She put the pizza in the oven.” Without the preposition in, we don’t know
where the pizza is.

Types of prepositions

Prepositions indicate direction, time, location and space.

Direction: Look to the left and you’ll see our destination.

Time: We’ve been working since this morning.

Location: We saw a movie at the theater.

Space: The dog hid under the table.

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Exercise:

Choose the correct answer:

1. I bought a beautiful dress at the mall.

a) preposition
b) adjective
c) noun

2. What did she ask you to do?

a) adjective
b) preposition
c) pronoun

3. I left my shoes under the kitchen table.

a) adjective
b) preposition
c) pronoun

4. If we finish our work quickly we can go to the movies.

a) adverb
b) noun
c) verb

5. On Saturdays I work from nine to five.

a) verb
b) preposition
c) adverb

6. I want to go to a university in the United States.

a) adjective
b) preposition
c) noun

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7. I'm sure I've met your girlfriend before.

a) verb
b) preposition
c) interjection

8. Well, I don't think I'll be home before 6.

a) noun
b) preposition
c) pronoun

9. Andy knocked on the door but nobody answered.

a) adverb
b) adjective
c) noun

10. After lunch let's go out for a coffee.

a) pronoun
b) preposition
c) verb

Choose the correct answer:

1. I have an old car.

(A. preposition / B. adjective / C. noun)

2. He is really tall, isn't he?

(A. pronoun / B. adjective / C. preposition)

3. Your books are in your backpack.

(A. pronoun / B. abverb / C. preposition)

4. If you study quietly we can play a game at the end of class.

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(A. verb / B. adverb / C. preposition)

5. After school, I usually study English from four to six o'clock.

(A. verb / B. adjective / C. noun)

6. I really love going to school.

(A. verb/ B. preposition / C. noun)

7. Have we met before?

(A. verb / B. noun / C. adverb)

8. Well, I don't think I did well on that exam.

(A. pronoun / B. verb / C. adverb)

9. I called your phone but nobody answered.

(A. verb / B. pronoun / C. adverb)

10.Let's get some lunch before class.

(A. noun / B. adverb / C. preposition)

Grammar
֍ Present Simple Tense ֍

Affirmative
l/we/you/they / plural help
he/she/it / singular helps
Negative
l/we/you/they / plural don't help
he/she/it / singular doesn't help
Questions
Do l/we/you/they / plural help?
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 Does he/she/it / singular help?
Short Answers
Yes, l/we/you/they/ plural do.
Yes, he/she/it/ singular does.
No, l/we/you/they/ plural don't.
No, he/she/it/ singular doesn't.

We use the Present Simple for :

1- Facts or general truths.
E.G. The sun rises in the east.

2- Routines or habits (often with adverbs of frequency).

E.G. Charlie walks to school with his friends.

3- Permanent states.
E.G. Her family lives in the Netherlands.

4- Timetabled events in the future.

E.G. The train to Belgrade leaves at 10 pm on Saturday.

Narratives (a story, a joke, a plot, sports commentaries, etc).

E.G. A kangaroo, a horse and a goat walk into a bar.
E.G. Mane passes to Salah; he shoots and scores!

Note: Some common time expressions that are often used with the Present Simple are:
• every day/week/month/summer,
• every other day,
• once a week, twice a month,
• at the weekend, in January,
• in the morning/afternoon/evening,
• at night, on Tuesdays, on Friday mornings, etc.

E.G. Jessica goes to a Greek island every summer.

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Remember
We often use adverbs of frequency with the Present Simple. They tell us how often something
happens. They come before the main verb, but after the verb be.
E.G. I sometimes help Mum with the shopping.
E.G. My football team rarely wins.
E.G. Jimmy is often late for school.

Some common adverbs of frequency are:

• always (most often)
• (most often)
• usually
• often
• sometimes
• rarely/hardly ever/seldom
• (least often)
• never (least often)

֍Present Continuous Tense ֍

Affirmative
I am ('m) Helping
he/she/it is ('s) Helping
we/you/they are ('re) Helping
Negative
I am ('m) not Helping
he/she/it is not (isn't) Helping
we/you/they are not (aren't) Helping
Questions
Am I helping?
Is he/she/it helping?
Are we/you/they helping?
Short Answers
Yes, I am.
Yes, he/she/it is.
Yes, we/you/they are.
No, I am ('m) not.
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 No, he/she/it isn't.
No, we/you/they aren't.

We use the Present Continuous for :

1- Actions that are in progress at the time of speaking.

E.G. Iris is studying for her maths test at the moment.

2- Actions that are in progress around the time of speaking, but not right now.
E.G. I'm looking for a new car.

3- Situations that are temporary.

E.G. We're staying with Grandma till Saturday.

4- An annoying habit (often with always, continually, constantly and forever).

E.G. Our English teacher is always giving us homework.

5- What is happening in a picture.

E.G. Two girls are shopping in a department store.

6- Plans and arrangements for the future.

E.G. We're going to the beach next Saturday.

7- Situations that are changing or developing in the present.

E.G. Mobile phones are getting smaller and smaller.

Some common time expressions that are often used with the Present Continuous are:
- at the moment / at present / currently / today / now
- for the time being
- This morning/afternoon/evening/week/month/year, etc.

E.G. Terry is having dinner at the moment.

֍ Stative Verbs ֍

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Some verbs are NOT usually used in continuous tenses. They are called stative verbs because they
describe states and not actions. The most common are:

• Verbs of Emotion: hate, like, love, need, prefer, want.

E.G. I don't like lazy people.

• Verbs of senses: feel, hear, see, smell, sound, taste.

E.G. You sound tired, Kelly.

• Verbs which express a state of mind: believe, doubt, forget, imagine, know, remember, seem,
suppose, think, understand.
E.G. I understand the laws of physics.

• Verbs of possession: belong to, have, own, possess.

E.G. Cristiano Ronaldo owns three sports cars.
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Other verbs: be, consist, contain, cost, include, mean, appear (= seem), concern, contain, depend,
fit (= be the right shape and size for something), know, mean, owe, own, require, weigh, (= have the
weight of), wish, keep (= continue), seem, etc.
Does the cost of the holiday include meals?
Some verbs can be both stative verbs and action verbs, but with a different meaning. The
most common of these verbs are:

1- Be (am / is / are / was / were / be / been / being)

Miranda is very mean to her brother. (usual behaviour)
They children are being very naughty today, what is the matter? (at the moment;
not their normal behaviour)

2- Expect
I expect you want to leave now. (expect = think or believe)
I am expecting dinner guests tonight. (expect = wait for)

2- have
Imelda has a lot of shoes. (have = own/possess)
I am having trouble with my history homework. (have = experience)

3- look
You look sad. What's wrong? (look = seem)
The police are looking for the robbers. (look = search)
I am looking at the bird (look = see / watch)

4- Taste
These cupcakes taste great! (taste = have a particular flavor)
I am tasting the soup in case it needs more salt. (taste = test the flavor)

5- Think
Do you think rap music is terrible? (think = have an opinion)
Mark is thinking of getting married. (think = consider)

6- See
I'm sorry but I don't see what you mean. (see = understand)
We are seeing Carol on Thursday. (see = meet)

7- Smell
The roses in your garden smell lovely. (smell = have a particular smell)
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I am smelling the milk because I think it's gone off. (smell = action of smelling)

8- Weigh
A baby elephant weighs 100 kilos. (weigh = have a particular weight)
The greengrocer is weighing the potatoes. (weigh = measure the weight)

Let’s Practice
1- Choose the correct word(s):

1- I enjoy playing squash. I .......................... it every weekend.

a) am playing b) play c) played d) will play

2- When Ali .................... here, please ask him to wait for me.

a) is coming b) will come c) came d) comes

3- Energy from the sun.................to the Earth as heat and light.

a) is radiated b) radiates c) radiate d) radiating

4- The film ............................ at 10 o'clock in the evening.

a) will start ...... b) is starting c) starts d) started

5- …………..………. here very often? - Yes, every morning.

a) Have you come b) Do you come

c) Will you come d) Did you come

6- He often ............................ at the office until late in the evening.

a) stays b) is staying c) will stay d) was staying

7- We .......................... the house at 6.00 every morning.

a) are leaving b) will leave c) leave d) have left

8- They …………….. to Europe next month.

a) travel b) travelling c) travels d) are travelling

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9- The flowers in the garden ………………… wonderful today.

a) smell b) smells c) smelling d) are smelling

2- Find the mistake and correct it.

1- We are going to the beach every day.

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2- Why are you complaining always about the weather?

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3- These roses are smelling lovely.

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4- They have a test usually at the end of each term.

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5- Are neurons sending messages to the brain?

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6- What do you stare at?

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7- I look for the station. Can you tell me where it is?

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8- She gets more and more excited about her birthday every day.

Correct the verb between brackets:

1- They normally _____________________ lunch at two. (have)

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2- Are _____________________ in Paris this week? (you work)

3- You _____________________ new clothes every Saturday! (buy)

4- She used to play football at school but now she______________ swimming (prefer)

5- I _________________ no idea what the book is about. Can you tell me what it’s about? (have)

6- John ___________________ a difficult time at the university this year (have)

7- My father _____________ everything about cars, but nothing about bicycles. (know)

8- The moon _____________________ round the earth. (go)

9- Do you see those men at the door? They_____________ at us very strangely (look)

10- We _________________ that the contents of this letter should be changed. (feel)

11- They ______________lunch at the moment. – You shouldn’t disturb them. (have)

12- The watch _____________________ to my grandmother. (belong)

13- I __________________what you _________________ me but I don’t agree with you (hear,
tell)

14- This medicine _________________ a new substance (contain)

15- These days we __________________ tests at school, really annoying! (always have)

5- Correct the verbs between brackets in the below paragraph:

September 27, 2023 Today (be) …………………. the second day of my trek around Mount
Annapurna. I am exhausted and my legs (shake) ……………………….; I just hope I am able to
complete the trek. My feet (kill, really) ………………. me and my toes (bleed)…………….. , but I
(want, still) …………….…….. to continue. Nepal is a fascinating country, but I have a great deal to
learn. Everything (be) …………………… so different and I (try) …………….…….. to adapt to the
new way of life here. I (learn) ………………… a little bit of the language to make communication
easier; unfortunately, I (learn, not) …………………… foreign languages quickly. Although I
(understand, not) ……………………..…. much yet, I believe that I (improve, gradually)
……………………………….. I (travel, currently) ………………………………….…. with Liam,
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a student from Leeds University in England. He (be) …………….. a nice guy, but impatient. He
(walk, always) ………………………………… ahead of me and (complain) ………………….
…….. that I am too slow. I (do) ………………………. my best to keep up with him, but he is
younger and stronger than I am. Maybe, I am just feeling sorry for myself because I am getting old.
Right now, Liam (sit) …………………. with the owner of the inn. They (discuss)
……………………………. the differences between life in England and life in Nepal. I (know, not)
……………………….…… the real name of the owner, but everybody (call, just)
……………………………. him Tam. Tam (speak) ……………………………….. English very
well and he (try) …………………..……… to teach Liam some words in Nepali. Every time Tam
(say) …………………………….. a new word, Liam (try) ……………………….. to repeat it.
Unfortunately, Liam (seem, also) ………………………………..…… to have difficulty learning
foreign languages. I just hope we don't get lost and have to ask for directions.

֍Present Perfect Simple ֍

Affirmative
l/we/you/they have ('ve) slept
he/she/it has ('s) slept
Negative
l/we/you/they have (haven't) slept
not
he/she/it has not (hasn't) slept
Questions
Have l/we/you/they slept?
Has he/she/it slept?
Short Answers
Yes, l/we/you/they have.
Yes, he/she/it has.
No, l/we/you/they haven't.
No, he/she/it hasn't.

We use the Present Perfect Simple:

1- For something that started in the past and has continued until now.
E.G. We have lived here for ten years.

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2- For something that happened in the past, but we don't know or we don't say exactly when.
E.G. Sam has read all of the Twilight books.

3- for something that happened in the past and has a result that affects the present.
E.G. I'm very tired because I have run a marathon!

4- For an action that has just finished.

E.G. They have just had dinner.

5-For experiences and achievements.

E.G. He has climbed Mt. Everest twice.

6- For an action that happened several times or repeatedly in the past.

E.G. I've told you time and time again to be careful!

7- with superlatives and expressions like ‘the first/second time.’

E.G. It was the best film I have ever seen.
E.G. This is the first time I have ever climbed the pyramids.

Note: Some common time expressions that are often used with the Present Perfect Simple are:
already / ever / for / for a long time / for ages / just / never / once / recently / since 2007, June…
etc. / so far / twice / three times / until now / yet, etc.
Examples:
E.G. Have you ever gone sailing?
E.G. This is the largest building I have ever seen.
E.G. I haven’t visited Paris since I was a little boy.
E.G. She has slept since 5 O’clock.
E.G. It has been three years since I joined work in this factory.
E.G. It’s a month since I last met my classmates.
E.G. I have worked as a teacher for 20 years.
E.G. We have already done our homework.
E.G. Have you sent the e-mail yet?
E.G. Have you sent all these e-mails already? You are really fast.
E.G. I have met three candidates already.
E.G. We have never contacted them.
E.G. I have recently found out how to operate such a complicated machine.

Remember

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We use have been to + place when someone has gone somewhere and has now returned, but we use
have gone to + place when someone has gone somewhere and is still there.
Tim has been to the bank and now he's shopping.
Tim has gone to the bank, so try calling him later.

֍ Present Perfect Continuous ֍

Affirmative
l/we/you/they have ('ve) been sleeping
he/she/it has ('s) been sleeping
Negative
l/we/you/they have not (haven't) been sleeping
he/she/it has not (hasn't) been sleeping
Questions
Have l/we/you/they been sleeping?
Has he/she/it been sleeping?
Short Answers
Yes, l/we/you/they have.
Yes, he/she/it has.
No, l/we/you/they haven't.
No, he/she/it hasn't.

We use the Present Perfect Continuous:

1- For actions that started in the past and are still in progress now or have happened repeatedly
until now.
E.G. Henry has been having tennis lessons since July.

2- For actions that happened repeatedly in the past and have finished recently but that have results
affecting the present.
E.G. Camilla is grumpy because she's been working very hard.

3- To emphasis how long actions have been in progress for.

E.G. I've been learning Chinese for five years.

4- For a recent or unfinished action.

E.G. We've been talking about our holiday plans

Note: Some common time expressions that are often used with the Present Perfect Continuous are:
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all day/night/week,
for years/a long time/ages,
lately, recently, since.
We can use How long ...? with the Present Perfect Continuous in questions and for (very) long in
questions and negative sentences.
E.G. We've been cleaning the house all day.
E.G. Jamie hasn't been working at the shop for very long.

֍ Present Perfect Simple vs. Present Perfect Continuous ֍

We use the Present Perfect Simple to talk about something we have done or achieved, or an action
that is complete. It is also used to say how many times something happened.

E.G. Oscar has written two books.

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to talk about how long something has been happening. It is
not important whether it has finished or not.

E.G. Ann has been studying in the library all morning.

Sure, here are 15 multiple choice sentences with four choices each on the present perfect simple vs.
present continuous:

Let’s Practice
Choose the correct word(s):
1- The scientists .................. research on motor skills since 2007.
a) have been doing b) have done
c) are doing d) do
2- Do you know how much a human brain..................?
a) is weighing b) weigh
c) weighs d) are weighing
3- .................. in New York till Saturday; we're coming back on Friday.

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a) Are we staying b) We aren't staying
c) We stay d) We don't stay
4- This is the most disgusting food .................. !
a) we ever have eaten c) we have ever eaten
b) we haven't ever eaten d) have we ever eaten
5- 'Are you hungry?' No, .................. lunch.'
a) I just have had b) have I just had
c) I have just had d) I am just having
6- The surgeon .................. the patient at the moment.
a) is examining b) examine
c) examines d) are examining
7- .................. for your psychology exam all night?
a) Have you studied c) You haven't been studying
b) Have you been studying d) Are you studying
8- Greta .................. us about body language – it's really interesting. Listen.
a) has been telling b) tells
c) tell d) have told
9- Dr. Stan .................. at the research centre for ten years.
a) has worked b) is working
c) works d) work
10- I've got a lot of problems and I .................. more and more anxious.

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a) have got b) am getting
c) have been getting d) is getting
11. I ……………… for you for an hour now
a) have been waiting b) am waiting
c) have waited d) am waited
12. Sarah .................. all her lessons already.
a) has studied b) is studying
c) has been studying d) is studied
13. We .................. each other for a long time.
a) haven't seen b) aren't seeing
c) haven't been seeing d) aren't seen
14. John .................. in New York for five years.
a) has lived b) is living
c) has been living d) is lived
15. The children .................. in the park all afternoon.
a) have played b) are playing

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c) have been playing d) are played

16. She .................. well lately, she is suffering from continuous dizziness.

a) hasn't felt b) isn't feeling

c) hasn't been feeling d) isn't felt

17. The company .................. its operations already.

a) has expanded b) is expanding

c) has been expanding d) is expanded

18. They .................. around Europe for two months now.

a) have traveled b) are traveling

c) have been traveling d) are traveled

19. He .................. a book for the last six months.

a) has written b) is writing

c) has been writing d) is written

20. Maria .................. Spanish since she was a child, she is still doing so.

a) has learned b) is learning

c) has been learning d) is learned

21. The restaurant .................. customers for over a decade.

a) has served b) is serving

c) has been served d) is served

22. Sam .................. his guitar every day for a week now.

a) has practiced b) is practicing

c) has been practicing d) is practiced

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23. The team .................. all their games this season.

a) has won b) is winning

c) has been winning d) is won

24. My sister .................. as a nurse for five years.

a) has worked b) is working

c) has been worked d) is worked

25. The company .................. new software for months, they are still working on it.

a) has developed b) is developing

c) has been developing d) is developed

Make either the present perfect simple or present perfect continuous.

1. ___________________ (you / buy) your train ticket yet?

2. The kitchen is a complete mess! What __________________ (the children / do)?
3. Julie ___________________ (learn) to drive for six years!
4. Amanda ___________________ (already / have) lunch, so she'll meet us later.
5. How much coffee ___________________ (she / drink) this morning?
6. Simon ___________________ (write) three books.
7. I ___________________ (do) everything I needed to do today! Hurray!
8. It ___________________ (not / rain) all summer, so the garden is dead.
9. I ___________________ (read) your book. Here it is, thank you.
10. She ___________________ (forget) how to get to my house.
11. I ___________________ (work) in the garden all day and I need a rest.
12. She ___________________ (make) three cakes. They look delicious!
13. David feels great these days. He ___________________ (get) up early lately.
26
14. We ___________________ (always / hate) rush hour traffic.
15. Recently, I ___________________ (study) a lot. My exams are in a few weeks.
16. We ___________________ (write) this book for months and months.
17. I ___________________ (always / love) chocolate.
18. I ___________________ (want) to go back to university for a long time.
19. What's that delicious smell? ___________________ (you / cook)?
20. I ___________________ (watch) seven films this week!

Fill in with the present perfect or the present perfect continuous:

Hi Sam,
How are things? I 1)…………………………………. (not/hear) from you in a while. What 2)
…………………………. (You/be) up to these past few weeks? 3)……………………….
(you/finish) your exams yet? Mine start next week and I'm already nervous. Even though I 4)
……………………………. (study) pretty hard since May, it still feels like I have a lot
to learn. Oh! Guess what! (5)………………………………….. (change) my mind about
getting a job when I leave school. I 6)…………………………….. (decide) that I want to go to
university and study veterinary science instead. Everyone's really surprised, but I (7)
………………………………… (think) about it for a while. As you know, I (8)
…………………………………….(work) as a volunteer at an animal shelter for the past two
years and I (9)………………………………….(realize) that helping animals is what I want to do
with my life. What about you? 10)……………………………………… (you/think) any more
about coming to visit me in August?

Brigitte

Past Simple Tense ֍

Affirmative
l/he/she/it/we/you/they talked / ate / went
Negative
l/he/she/it/we/you/they didn't talk / didn’t eat / didn’t go /
27
 Questions
Did l/he/she/it/we/you/they talk / eat / go?
Short Answers
Yes, l/he/she/it/we/you/ they did.
No, l/he/she/it/we/you/ they didn't.

We use the Past Simple for

1- Something that started and finished in the past.

E.G. Columbus reached America in 1492.

2- Past routines and habits (often with adverbs of frequency like sometimes, often …etc).
E.G. The ancient Romans often went to war.

3- Past states
E.G. I was exhausted after the show.

4- actions that happened one after the other in the past, for example when telling a story.
E.G. He opened the door and walked into a cold, dark room.

Note: Some common time expressions that are often used with the Past Simple are: yesterday, last
night/week/ month/summer, a week/month/year ago, twice a week,
once a month, at the weekend, in March, in the morning/ afternoon/evening, at night, on Thursdays,
on Monday morning …etc.
E.G. I watched some hilarious videos on YouTube yesterday.

Difference Between Simple Past and Present Perfect

Use
Simple past is used when we simply want to say that something happened in the past.
Present perfect is used when we want to emphasize the result of a past action.

Actions
Simple past is used with finished actions.
Present perfect is used with unfinished actions that started in the past and continue to the present.

28
Result of the Action
Simple past is used with a finished action with no result in the present.
Present Perfect is used with a finished action with a result in the present.
Information
Simple past describes older information.
Present perfect describes more recent news and information.

Specific Time
Simple past is used with a time expression that denotes a specific time period.
Present perfect is when the time is not clear.

Time Period
Simple past is used when the time period is finished.

29
Present perfect is used when the time period is not finished.

30
Choose the past simple or the present perfect:
1. Yesterday I ___________________ (forget) my dictionary at home; so, I
____________________(borrow) another one from my classmate.
2. I _____________________ (lose) my keys I can’t get in.
3. My brother ______________________ (visit) U.S. three times.
4. Last month I _______________________ (visit) Venice for the first time.
5. I _______________________ (know) Spanish when I was eight; but, by time I
___________(forget).
6. My best friend Chris _______________________ (know) me for ten years, we still meet once a
week at least.
7. I ___________________ (play) volleyball since I was a little kid; I’m pretty good at it.
8. Tina __________________ (play) soccer at university, however she
__________________ (not / like) it.
9. Sorry, I __________________ (miss) the train; shall we meet tomorrow?
10. Yesterday was a tough day for me; first, I __________________ (miss) the bus; so, I
__________________ (not / reach) my meeting on time, and then I _______________ (miss) the
train; so, I was late home.
11. Last year I __________________ (go) to Paris.
12. I’m sorry, my mother isn’t here now. She __________________ (go) shopping.
31
13. Daniel __________________ (finish) his lunch quickly and left home.
14. I __________________ (finish) painting the walls finally and I’m so tired!

Fill in the blanks using either the present perfect or the past simple:

Last week I ……………………..(meet) an old lady called Cindy. She …………………..(be) eighty
two. She………………..(be) a beggar. She …………………..(talk)to me and I ……………(hear)
the story of her entire life. I …………………(feel) so sad when she ……………..(finish)it that I
almost ……………..(cry).As I …………….(feel) sorry for her, I ……………(give) Cindy some
money.
This morning something wonderful and amazing ……………….(happen) to me. I
…………………….(meet) Cindy again , but my goodness ,she…………………….(be) different .
She told me the following.
Since you ………………… (give) me that money my life ………………….(change)
completely .With the money you ……………(give) me. I ……………..(buy) a ticket and I
……………..(win). I ……………….(buy ) myself a house where I’m living now. I
…………………….(also buy) some new clothes ,a TV set. You can’t imagine how happy I am!
I …………………(be) so astonished that I could not even say a word. I …………………..
(follow)her and surprise! She …………….(buy) me a yellow Ferrari
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Put the verbs in brackets into the past simple or the present perfect:
Dear Tina,
Hi! How are you? I’m having such a great time in Singapore. The city is so clean and the people are
very kind and helpful! We ………………….(be)here for three days now and we …………………..
(do) something different each day. On Monday ,we………………(go ) to the shops in Singapore’s
Chinatown…………………………..(buy) souvenirs for my friends and some CDs for me .On
Tuesday , we ……………………(go)on a riverboat tour on the Singapore river.
It……………………(be)fantastic! Yesterday, we ………………….(visit) Singapore Botanic
Gardens. We ………………..(see) many beautiful exotic flowers and plants. There are still a couple
of things we………………..(not\do) yet. We …………………..(not\visit) the Jurong Bird Park yet
32
and we ……………………(not\go) to the Singapore zoo . We’re going there tomorrow. I can’t wait
to see the white Bengal tiger!
Singapore is a beautiful city. I ……………………..(already \take) so many lovely photographs and
I can’t wait to see them when I get back.
Lots of love
May

֍ Past Continuous Tense ֍

Affirmative
l/he/she/it was talking
we/you/they were talking
Negative
l/he/she/it was not (wasn't) talking
we/you/they were not (weren't) talking
Questions
Was l/he/she/it talking?
Were we/you/they talking?
Short Answers
Yes, l/he/she/it was.
Yes, we/ you/ they were.
No, l/he/she/it wasn't.
No, we/you/they weren't.

We use the Past Continuous for:

1- Actions that were in progress at a specific time in the past.

E.G. Ivan was driving to work at 8 0'clock this morning.

2- Two or more actions that were in progress at the same time in the past.
E.G. Ken was watching TV while Barbie was reading a fashion magazine.

3- Giving background information in a story.

E.G. The sun was shining and the birds were singing in the trees.
4- An action that was in progress in the past that was interrupted by another action.
E.G. Ray was taking photos from the top of the Eiffel Tower when he dropped his camera.
33
5- Temporary situations in the past
E.G. She was managing a fast-food restaurant at the time.

Note: Some common time expressions that are often used with the Past Continuous are
while, as, all day/week/ month/year, at ten o'clock last night, last Sunday/week/
year, this morning, etc.
E.G. I was researching the ancient Incas this morning.

Conjunctions:

Let’s practice
Rewrite the following sentences correcting the verbs in brackets using either past simple or
past continous:

1- I (watch/watching) TV when my sister called.

………………………………………………………………………………………

2- He (go/went) to the gym every day last week.

34
………………………………………………………………………………………

3- While we (dance/dancing) at the party, the power went out.

……………………………………………………………………………………

4- They (study/studying) for their exams all night.

………………………………………………………………………………………

5- She (run/running) in the park when she twisted her ankle.

………………………………………………………………………………………

6- We (play/playing) soccer when it started to rain.

………………………………………………………………………………………

7- Tom (read/reading) a book when his friend arrived.

………………………………………………………………………………………

8- The children (watched/were watching) a movie when the doorbell rang.

………………………………………………………………………………………

9- She (cook/cooking) dinner when the fire alarm went off.

………………………………………………………………………………………

10- They (swim/swimming) in the pool when it started to thunder.

…………………………………………………………………………………….

Each sentence has one mistake. Write the correct sentences.

1-She was seeing the shark while she was surfing.

………………………………………………………………………………………
2-What was you doing last night at 8.00pm?

………………………………………………………………………………………

35
3-I was reading a book when my brother was getting back.

………………………………………………………………………………………
4-He didn’t liked the film very much.

………………………………………………………………………………………
5-What did he see while he swam?

………………………………………………………………………………………
6-You can turn off the TV, I not was watching it.

………………………………………………………………………………………
7-I was talking to Stephen while the phone rang.

………………………………………………………………………………………

Past Perfect
The past perfect refers to a time earlier than before now. It is used to make it clear that one event
happened before another in the past. It does not matter which event is mentioned first - the tense
makes it clear which one happened first.

In these examples, Event A is the event that happened first and Event B is the second or more recent
event:

Event A Event B

John had gone out when I arrived in the office.

Event A Event B

36
I had saved my document before the computer crashed.

Event B Event A

When they arrived we had already started cooking.

Event B Event A

He was very tired because he hadn't slept well.

Forming the past perfect

The Past Perfect tense in English is composed of two parts: the past tense of the verb to have
(had) + the past participle of the main verb.

Subject +had +past participle

Affirmative

She had Given

Negative

She hadn't asked.

37
Subject +had +past participle

Interrogative

Had they arrived?

Interrogative Negative

Hadn't you finished?

To decide, past perfect

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I had decided I hadn't decided Had I decided?

You had decided You hadn't decided Had you decided?

She had decided She hadn't decided Had she decided?

We had decided We hadn't decided Had we decided?

They had They hadn't decided Had they decided?

decided

38
Past perfect + just

'Just' is used with the past perfect to refer to an event that was only a short time earlier than before
now, e.g.

 The train had just left when I arrived at the station.

 She had just left the room when the police arrived.

 I had just put the washing out when it started to rain.

Change these sentences into a) the past simple, b) past continuous, and d) the past perfect.

1. I work in a supermarket.
……………………………………………………………………………………….

2. My father lives in Las Vegas.

……………………………………………………………………………………….

3. Lisa cooks pasta for everybody

.……………………………………………………………………………………….

4. Candice buys old dolls at street markets.

……………………………………………………………………………………….

5. Tom and Tina write books for children.

……………………………………………………………………………………….

6. We leave school late.

……………………………………………………………………………………….

7. You speak too fast.

……………………………………………………………………………………….
Dear Janet
I hope you’re OK. Unfortunately, I’m not. The doctor _____________________ (COME)
yesterday. He _______________________ (NOT LIKE) my cough. I ________________________

39
(LIE) in bed since Tuesday, and I can’t stand it anymore. I _______________________ (NEVER
BE) ill like this before - don’t know what’s the matter with me.
And the weather’s terrible, too. It ____________________________ (RAIN) the whole week and I
can’t even have a cup of tea in the morning to cheer myself up, because the milkman
_____________________ (NOT COME) this morning. Don’t know why - I’m pretty sure I
_____________________ (PAY) his bill.
Alice _____________________ (GET) married last week, so now all Mary’s kids
_____________________ (LEAVE) home. She won’t know what to do with herself, will she?
Lucy Millmann is moving to Doncaster next month. Since Fred _____________________ (DIE) of
a heart attack she _____________________ (BE) all alone. I’m sorry she’s going. We
_____________________ (BE) neighbors for over twenty years and she
________________________ (ALWAYS , BE) friendly and helpful to me.
Jessica, my cleaning lady, _____________________ (LEAVE) a few days ago. I’m glad. I
_____________________ (NOT TRUST) her since she _____________________ (BREAK) all
those plates and _____________________ (SAY) it _____________________ (BE) the cat.
The village _____________________ (NOT CHANGE) very much. A new family
_____________________ (TAKE) over the grocery store recently. They seem quite nice. I hope
they are more efficient than the last shopkeeper.
So that’s about it. Please write to me when there’s something new.

Love, Patricia

Future Forms

There is no future tense in English. We use several different ways to talk about the future. The most
common are:

They’re going to build a new shopping centre here. (be going to)

Leena is working in Singapore next week. (present continuous)

I think they will postpone the match. (modal verb will)

Nadia arrives in about half-an-hour from now. (present simple)

40
I’ll be running ten kilometres a day for the next two weeks to get ready for the marathon. (future
continuous)

We’re late. Do you think the lecture will have started? (future perfect)

We’re just about to leave for the cinema. (be about to)

The president is to visit Brazil in November. (be to)

The visitors are due to arrive at the factory early in the morning. (be due to)

I was on the point of leaving my job but then I got promoted so I changed my mind. (be on the point
of)

She promised she would return soon. (future in the past)

They said they were having a holiday next April. (future in the past)

Will and shall: form

Will and shall are modal verbs. They are used with the base form of the main verb (They will go; I
shall ask her). Shall is only used for future time reference with I and we, and is more formal
than will.

singular and plural

+ I, we (full form) work

she, he, it, you, they will or shall

will

I, she, he, it, you, we, (short form)

they
’ll

− I, we (full form) Work

she, he, it, you, they will not or shall not

41
 will not

I, we (short form)

she, he, it, you, they won’t or shan’t

won’t

?+ I, we work?

Will or Shall she, he, it, you, they

Will

?− I, we

Won’t or Shan’t she, he, it, you, they

Won’t

’ll: short forms of shall and will

Spoken English:

In speaking, shall and will are usually contracted to ’ll, especially after subject pronouns
(I, we, you, they, she, he, it):

We’ll meet you outside the coffee shop. (more common in speaking than We will meet you outside
the coffee shop)

Will and shall: uses

Predictions

We use will and shall to make predictions and to state facts about the future:

There will be strong winds tomorrow in the south of the country.

The year 2025 will be the four-hundredth anniversary of the founding of the university.

42
We shall need an extra bedroom when the new baby arrives.

Decisions and offers

Will and shall (usually in the short form ’ll) are used to announce decisions and to make offers:

[a salesperson in a clothes shop is talking to a customer]

A:

Which size do you want? Medium or large?

B:

I’ll have large. (decision)

Wait. I’ll open the door for you. (offer)

Not: Wait. I open the door for you.

I shall contact you again when I have further information.

Future: be going to (I am going to work)

Be going to: form

We use be going to + the base form of the verb:

I’m going to take a few exams at the end of the year.

It’s going to be difficult to get a job during the summer as the tourist industry is suffering from the
economic downturn.

Be going to: uses

Be going to is commonly used in informal styles.

Intentions

We use be going to to talk about future plans and intentions. Usually the decision about the future
plans has already been made:

43
She’s going to be a professional dancer when she grows up.

I’m going to look for a new place to live next month.

Predictions

We use be going to to predict something that we think is certain to happen or which we have
evidence for now:

It’s going to snow again soon. (The speaker can probably see dark snow clouds.)

Look out! He’s going to break that glass.

Commands

We use be going to when we give commands or state that something is obligatory:

[parent to a child]

You’re going to pick up all of those toys right now. This room is a mess!

Gonna (informal contexts)

Spoken English:

We use gonna /gənə/ instead of going to in informal contexts, especially in speaking and in song
lyrics. We write gonna to show how to pronounce it:

Are you gonna try and get stuff sorted as soon as you can then? (Are you going to try and get
things organised as soon as you can?)

One day I’m gonna be a star.

Be going to or will?

Will is often used in a similar way to be going to. Will is used when we are talking about something
with absolute certainty. Be going to is used when we want to emphasise our decision or the
evidence in the present:

[An ‘A’ road is a main road. A ‘B’ road is a smaller road.]

We are now very late so we’re going to take the ‘B’ road. (the speaker refers to the present and
emphasises the decision)
44
I know the ‘B’ road will be quicker at this time of day. (the speaker states a fact)
Future: present continuous to talk about the future (I’m working tomorrow)
The present continuous can refer to the future. It shows that we have already decided something and usually that we
have already made a plan or arrangements:
[talking about plans for a tour by a rock music group]
The band is visiting Denmark next May.
I am taking the train to Paris tomorrow.
Warning:

We don’t use the present continuous when we predict something. Instead, we use going to or will:
It’s going to rain again soon.
Not: It’s raining again soon.

Future continuous (I will be working)

We use will/shall + be + the -ing form of the verb.

singular and plural

+ I, she, he, it, you, we, they will be working

’ll

− I, she, he, it, we, you, they (full form) be working

I, she, he, it, you, we, they will not
(short form)
won’t

? + Will I, she, he, it, you, we, they be working?

? − Won’t

Less commonly, and in more formal situations, we can also use shall instead of will with I and we.

45
Future continuous: use

We use the future continuous to refer to temporary actions and events that will be in progress at a particular time in
the future:
This time next week, I’ll be taking photographs with my new camera.
I’ll post your letter for you. I’ll be passing a post-box.
Next week they will be flying to Australia from Saudi Arabia.
She will not be working on Tuesday.
Unfortunately we won’t be attending the wedding.

Future perfect simple (I will have worked eight hours)

Future perfect simple: form

We use will/shall + have + the -ed form of the verb.

We use shall only for future time reference with I and we. Shall is more formal than will.

singular and plural

+ I, we (full form) have worked

she, he, it, you, they will or shall

will

I, she, he, it, you, we, they (short form)

’ll

− I, we (full form) have worked

she, he, it, you, they will not or shall

not

will not

46
 I, we (short form)

she, he, it, you, they won’t or shan’t

won’t

? + Will I, she, he, it, you, we, they have worked?

? − Won’
t

Note: Shall I, shall we and shan’t I, shan’t we in future perfect questions are rare.

Future perfect simple: use

Events finished by a certain time in the future

We use the future perfect form when we look back to the past from a point in the future. We usually
use a time phrase, for example by tomorrow, for three years:

Do you think she’ll have seen the doctor by four o’clock?

Next month my parents will have been together for thirty years.

At the end of this month, they will have been in their house for one year.

Next month I will have worked for the company for six years.

I think they’ll have got there by six o’clock.

Won’t she have retired by the end of the year? (more common than Will she not have retired?)

Practice

Choose the correct forms of the Future Simple, Future Continuous or Future Perfect for the
sentences below.

1. I promise I___________ you with your homework.

47
a) will help b) will be helping c) will have helped

2. Claire__________ when you return this evening.

a) will work b) will be working c) will have worked

3. We ___________to Greece at 6 pm.

a) will fly b) will be flying c) will have flown

4. They___________ home after school.

a) will come b) will be coming c) will have come

5. The kids______________ to bed by 10 pm.

a) will go b) will be going c) will have gone

6. Try to call before 2 pm. After that, we ______________ in the garden.

a) will work b) will be working c) will have worked

7. William and Kate are coming at 7 pm. I ____________setting the table by then.

a) will finish b) will be finishing c) will have finished

8. I______________ all the essays by next week.

a) won’t check b) won’t be checking c) won’t have checked

9. This time next week, Amy_____________ her driving exam.

a) will take b) will be taking c) will have taken

10. I think our team____________ the football game.

a) will win b) will be winning c) will have won

11. The sun_____________ at 7:31 am.

a) will rise b) will be rising c) will have risen

12. He_____________ when you arrive.

48
a) will wait b) will be waiting c) will have waited

13. Ryan hopes that we______________ him a new laptop.

a) will buy b) will be buying c) will have bought

14. You______________ me by then.

a) will forget b) will be forgetting c) will have forgotten

Passive voice
An active sentence like:
I drank two cups of coffee

has the subject first (the person or thing that does the verb), followed by the verb, and finally the
object (the person or thing that the action happens to).
So, in this example, the subject is 'I', the verb is 'drank' and the object is 'two cups of coffee'.

However, we might want to put the object first, or perhaps we don't want to say who did the action.
This can happen for lots of reasons (see the explanation further down the page). In this case, we can
use a passive, which puts the object first:
Two cups of coffee were drunk (by me)

(we can add 'by me' if we want, but it isn't necessary).

How to make the Passive in English:

We make the passive by putting the verb 'to be' into whatever tense we need and then adding the
past participle. For regular verbs, we make the past participle by adding 'ed' to the infinitive. So
play becomes played.

Tense Active Passive

present simple I make a cake. A cake is made (by me).
present continuous I am making a cake. A cake is being made
(by me).
past simple I made a cake. A cake was made (by
me).
past continuous I was making a cake. A cake was being made
(by me).
49
 present perfect I have made a cake. A cake has been made
(by me).
pres. perf. continuous I have been making a A cake has been being
cake. made (by me).
past perfect I had made a cake. A cake had been made
(by me).
future simple I will make a cake. A cake will be made (by
me).
future perfect I will have made a cake. A cake will have been
made (by me).

Verbs with two objects:

Some verbs that have two objects can make two different active sentences, and so two different
passive sentences too:

Give
Active: He gave me the book / He gave the book to me.

Passive: I was given the book (by him)/ The book was given to me (by him).
Other verbs like this are: ask, offer, teach, tell, lend, promise, sell, throw.

The passive in subordinate clauses:

You can make the passive in a subordinate clause that has a subject and a normal conjugated verb.
This is really the same as a normal passive.
• Active: I thought that Mary had phoned Sara.
• Passive: I thought that Sara had been phoned by Mary.
• Active: He knew that people had built the castle in 1915.
• Passive: He knew that the castle had been built in 1915.

Passive gerund or a passive infinitive

You can also make the passive using a passive gerund or a passive infinitive in the same place as a
normal gerund or infinitive.

• Active: The child loves us cuddle it.

• • Passive: The child loves being cuddled.

50
• • Active: She would like the boss to promote her.
• • Passive: She would like to be promoted.
•
When should we use the Passive?

1. When we want to change the focus of the sentence:

The Mona Lisa was painted by Leonardo Da Vinci. (We are more interested in the painting than the
artist in this sentence)

2. When who or what causes the action is unknown or unimportant or obvious or 'people in general':

o He was arrested (obvious agent, the police).

o My bike has been stolen (unknown agent).

o The road is being repaired (unimportant agent).

o The form can be obtained from the post office (people in general).

3. In factual or scientific writing:

o The chemical is placed in a test tube and the data entered into the computer.

4. In formal writing instead of using someone/ people/ they (these can be used in speaking or
informal writing):

o The brochure will be finished next month.

5. In order to put the new information at the end of the sentence to improve style:

o Three books are used regularly in the class. The books were written by Dr. Bell. ('Dr. Bell wrote
the books' sound clumsy)

6. When the subject is very long:

51
o I was surprised by how well the students did in the test. (More natural than: 'how well the students
did in the test surprised me')

Writing

Punctuation

What is punctuation?

Punctuation is the tool that allows us to organize our thoughts and make it easier to review and
share our ideas.

In speaking, we use pauses and the pitch of the voice to make what we say clear. Punctuation plays
a similar role in writing, making it easier to read.
Punctuation consists of both rules and conventions. There are rules of punctuation that have to be
followed; but there are also punctuation conventions that give writers greater choice.
The most common punctuation marks in English are: capital letters and full stops, question marks,
commas, colons and semi-colons, exclamation marks and quotation marks.

a) Punctuation: capital letters (ex: B, D):

1- We use capital letters to mark the beginning of a sentence.
Ex: We went to France last summer. We were really surprised that it was so easy to travel on the
motorways.
2- We also use capital letters at the beginning of proper nouns. Proper nouns include personal
names (including titles before names), nationalities and languages, days of the week and
months of the year, public holidays as well as geographical places:
Ex: Dr. David James is the consultant at Leeds City Hospital.
Ex: They are planning a long holiday in New Zealand.
Ex: Can she speak Japanese?
3- We use capital letters for the titles of books, magazines and newspapers, plays and music:
Ex: ‘Oliver’ is a musical based on the novel ‘Oliver Twist’ by Charles Dickens.

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 b) Punctuation: Full stops or period (.):

1- We use full stops to mark the end of a sentence:

Ex: The next meeting of the group will take place on Thursday.

2- In addition to closing sentences, we also use full stops in initials for personal names:
Ex: G. W. Dwyer
Ex: David A. Johnston, Accountant
3- Full stops are also used after abbreviations, although this practice is becoming less common:

Arr. (arrival) etc. (etcetera)

Dr. (doctor) Prof. (professor)

c) Punctuation: question marks (?) and exclamation marks (!)

1- We use question marks to make clear that what is said is a question. P.s.: When we use a
question mark, we do not use a full stop:
Ex: Why do they make so many mistakes?
Ex: A: So you’re Harry’s cousin?
2- We use exclamation marks to indicate an exclamative clause (surprise, pain or strong
emotion) or expression in informal writing. When we want to emphasize something in
informal writing, we sometimes use more than one exclamation mark:
Ex: Listen!
Ex: Oh no!!! Please don’t ask me to phone her. She’ll talk for hours!!!

d) Punctuation: commas (,)

1- We use commas to separate a list of similar words or phrases:
Ex: It’s important to write in clear, simple, accurate words.

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Ex: They were friendlier, more talkative, nicer than last time we met them.
2- We do not normally use a comma before and at the end of a list of single words:
Ex: They travelled through Bulgaria, Slovakia, the Czech Republic and Poland.
3- American English does use a comma in lists before and:
Ex: We took bread, cheese, and fruit with us.
4- We use commas to separate words or phrases that mark where the voice would pause slightly:
Ex: I can’t tell you now. However, all will be revealed tomorrow at midday.
Ex: We had, in fact, lost all of our money.
Ex: James, our guide, will accompany you on the boat across to the island.

Separating clauses with commas

5- When main clauses are separated by and, or, but, we don’t normally use a comma if the
clauses have the same subject. However, we sometimes use commas if the clauses have
different subjects:
Ex: They were very friendly and invited us to their villa in Portugal. (Same subject)
Ex: Footballers these days earn more money but they are fitter and play many more matches. (Same
subject)
Ex: It was an expensive hotel in the center of Stockholm, but we decided it was worth the
money. (Different subjects)
6- When a non-main clause comes before the main clause, we commonly use a comma to
separate the clauses. However, we do not always do this in short sentences:
Ex: If you get lost in the city center, please don’t hesitate to text or phone us.
Ex: If you get lost just phone us.
7- When we use subordinate or non-finite comment clauses to give further details or more
information, we commonly use commas to separate the clauses:
Ex: You do need to wear a darker jacket, if I may say so.
Ex: To be honest, I thought they were very very rude.

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Commas and relative clauses:

8- We use commas to mark non-defining clauses. Such clauses normally add extra, non-
essential information about the noun or noun phrase:
Ex: The ambulance, which arrived after just five minutes, took three people to the hospital
immediately.
Ex: Hong Kong, where the first ASEAN meeting was held, is a very different city now.
9- The same is true for non-finite clauses:
Ex: The storm, lasting as it did for several days, caused serious damage to villages near the coast.
Warning:
We don’t use commas to mark defining clauses:
Ex: Barcelona was the Spanish city that was selected for the Olympic Games.
Not: … the Spanish city, that was selected …

Commas and speech forms

10- We commonly separate tags and yes-no responses with commas:

Ex: They are going to the party, aren’t they?
Ex: No, thank you. I’ve already eaten too much.
11- We also usually separate vocatives, discourse markers and interjections with commas:
Ex: Open the door for them, Kayleigh, can you. Thanks. (Vocative)
Ex: Well, what do you think we should do about it? (Discourse marker)
Ex: Wow, that sounds really exciting. (Interjection)
12- We use commas to show that direct speech is following or has just occurred:
Ex: He said in his opening speech, ‘Now is the time to plan for the future.’ (Or He said in his
opening speech: ‘Now is the time to plan for the future.’)
13- When the direct speech is first, we use a comma before the closing of the quotation
marks:
Ex: ‘We don’t want to go on holiday to the same place every year,’ he said impatiently.

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 e) Punctuation: colons (:) and semi-colons (;)
1- We use colons to introduce lists:
Ex: There are three main reasons for the success of the government: economic, social and political.
2- We also use colons to indicate a subtitle or to indicate a subdivision of a topic:
Ex: Life in Provence: A Personal View.
3- We often use colons to introduce direct speech:
Ex: Then he said: ‘I really cannot help you in any way.’
4- We commonly use a colon between sentences when the second sentence explains or justifies
the first sentence:
Ex: Try to keep your flat clean and tidy: it will be sold more easily.

5- We use semi-colons instead of full stops to separate two main clauses. In such cases, the
clauses are related in meaning but are separated grammatically:
Ex: Spanish is spoken throughout South America; in Brazil the main language is Portuguese.
P.S.: Semi-colons are not commonly used in modern English. Full stops and commas are more
common.

f) Punctuation: quotation marks (‘…’ or “…”)

1- Quotation marks in English are ‘…’ or “…”. In direct speech, we enclose what is said within
a pair of single or double quotation marks, although single quotation marks are becoming
more common. Direct speech begins with a capital letter and can be preceded by a comma or
a colon:
Ex: She said, “Where can we find a nice Indian restaurant?” (Or She said: ‘Where can we find a
nice Indian restaurant?’)
2- We can put the reporting clause in three different positions. Note the position of commas and
full stops here:
Ex: The fitness trainer said, ‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin.’ (Quotation mark after
comma introducing speech and after full stop)
Ex: ‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin,’ the fitness trainer said. (Comma before closing
quotation mark)
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Ex: ‘Don’t try to do too much,’ the fitness trainer said, ‘when you begin.’ (Commas separating the
reporting clause)
3- When we use direct speech inside direct speech, we use either single quotation marks inside
double quotation marks, or double quotation marks inside single quotation marks:
Ex: “It was getting really cold,” he said, “and they were saying ‘When can we go back home?’”
Ex: Jaya said, ‘they were getting really excited and were shouting “Come on!”’.
4- We commonly use question marks inside the quotation marks unless the question is part of
the reporting clause:
Ex: ‘Why don’t they know who is responsible?’ they asked.
Ex: So did they really say ‘We will win every match for the next three weeks’?
5- We also use single quotation marks to draw attention to a word. We can use quotation marks
in this way when we want to question the exact meaning of the word:
Ex: I am very disappointed by his ‘apology’. I don’t think he meant it at all.
Ex: NEW ‘WAR’ OVER NORTH SEA FISHING PLANS
6- We sometimes use quotation marks to refer to the titles of books, newspapers, magazines,
films, songs, poems, videos, CDs, etc:
Ex: There’s a special report all about it in ‘The Daily Mail’.
Ex: We can use italics instead of quotation marks for these citations:
There’s a special report all about it in The Daily Mail.
7- Articles or chapters within books, or titles of short stories, are normally punctuated by single
quotation marks:
Ex: The longest chapter in the book is the last one called ‘The Future of Africa’.

g) Punctuation: dashes ( – ) and other punctuation marks

1- Dashes are more common in informal writing. They can be used in similar ways to commas
or semi-colons. Both single and multiple dashes may be used:
Ex: Our teacher – who often gets angry when we’re late – wasn’t angry at all. No one could believe
it!
Ex: Just wanted to thank you for a lovely evening – we really enjoyed it.
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 2- Brackets have a similar function to dashes. They often add extra, non-essential information:
Ex: Thriplow (pronounced ‘Triplow’) is a small village in the eastern part of England.
3- We use brackets around dates and page numbers in academic writing:
Ex: Heaton (1978) gives a convincing explanation of how hurricanes are formed (pages 27–32).
4- We often use forward slashes in internet addresses and to indicate and/or in academic
references:
Ex: You can find the figures you need on www.bbc.co.uk/finance
Ex: Binks (1995/1997) has already researched this aspect of Roman history.

h) Punctuation: numerals and punctuation

1- In British English the date is usually given in the order day, month, year.
2- We use full stops in dates. Forward slashes or dashes are also commonly used:
Ex: Date of birth: 1.8.1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1–8–1985)
3- In American English the day and the month are in a different order so that 8 January 1985 is
written as follows:
Ex: 1–8–1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1.8.1985)
4- We don’t usually punctuate weights and measures and references to numbers:
Ex: 4kg (4 kilograms)10m (10 meters) 5m dollars (5 million dollars)
5- Commas are used in numbers to indicate units of thousands and millions:
Ex: 7,980 (seven thousand, nine hundred and eighty)
Ex: 11,487,562 (eleven million, four hundred and eighty-seven thousand, five hundred and sixty-
two)
6- We use full stops, not commas, to indicate decimal points:
Ex: 6.5 (six point five) Not: 6,5
7- We can punctuate times with full stops or colons:
Ex: The shop opens at 9.30. (or 9:30)

i) Punctuation: Apostrophe (’)

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 1- Apostrophe to show two words have been connected (contraction). We sometimes connect
two words to make one shorter word. We use an apostrophe to show that we have left out one
or more letters:

They don’t like salt in their food.

do not → don’t
It’s a long way to walk.
it is → it’s
Isn’t that such a pretty dress?
is not → isn’t
You’ve broken my watch!
you have → you’ve
We can’t tell your father.
cannot → can’t
She won’t eat any vegetables.
will not → won’t
What’s he doing? Who’d like some coffee?
wh-word + ’s, ’d, etc.

Warning:

We use ’s for has and is:

She’s seen that movie already. (Has)

He’s my brother. (Is)

Warning:

We use ’d for had and would:

They’d never been to Japan before. (Had)

She’d love to live in the USA. (Would)

2- Apostrophe + s to show possession

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When we show who owns something or has a close relationship with something, we use an
apostrophe + s after the name or the noun. When the noun is plural, we put the apostrophe after
the s:
Ex: Is that Frank’s camera?
Ex: There was a big teachers’ conference last week in Mexico City. (a conference for teachers)

3- Apostrophe with time

We can use an apostrophe + s to show duration. When the time noun is plural, the apostrophe comes
after the s:
Ex: For me, writing an essay involves at least an hour’s work.
Ex: It was just ten minutes’ walk from my house to my office. (The walk from my house to my
office takes just ten minutes)
4- When we write the time, we sometimes use o’clock:
Ex: 14:00: two o’clock
Ex: 18:00: six o’clock

5- Apostrophe: typical error

We use an apostrophe to contract it is to it’s. We don’t use an apostrophe with possessive its:
Ex: The University is very proud of its gardens.
Not: … of it’s gardens.

j) Punctuation: hyphen (-)

1- The symbol -, used to join two words together, or to show that a word has been divided into
two parts at the end of one line and the beginning of the next:

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Ex: There are hyphens in "well-to-do".

Ex: She adds a hyphen to her first name, Anne-Marie.

Exercises:

Choose the correct answer:

1- I am used to connect two words (comma – dash – hyphen).

2- I am used to mark the beginning of a sentence (period – capital letter – colon).
3- I am used to separate a list of words or phrases. (quotation – apostrophe – comma)
4- I am used to express surprise (question mark – exclamation mark – mark)
5- I am used to introduce lists (semi colon – full stop – colon)
6- I am used in direct speech (comma – quotation mark – apostrophe)
7- I am used in abbreviations (dash – hyphen – full stop)
8- I am used with defining clauses (none – comma – full stop)
9- I am used in initials for personal names (full stop – hyphen – dash)
10- I am used for books titles, magazines and newspapers (hyphen – dash – capital letters)

Add the correct punctuation marks for the text below:

hi clara

i havent seen you in ages i saw your sister at jacks birthday party last weekend why didnt you come
too

its a pity because i had been really looking forward to seeing you and having a good chat

the party was absolutely fab but unfortunately i spilt a drink on kates new white dress and she was
furious with me

she still wont speak to me can you believe it its really upsetting as weve been best friends since
primary school and weve never fallen out before how can i get her to forgive me

by the way I took a lot of photos at the part do you want me to send you some

reply soon

joy
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Add the correct punctuation marks for the text below:

what do you look for when travelling abroad sunny beaches or historical sites without a doubt spain
is a destination that offers variety of tastes so you only want to be in the sun all day what are the top
spanish resorts try the costa del soro or an exotic island like Mallorca the beautiful sunny beaches
golden sands and crystal waters wont fail to please but what if youre culture vulture spain boasts
many exceptional historical sites like the sagrada familia church and other amazing buildings by
gaudi in barcelona spains most exciting city if art is more your cup of tea dont miss the prado
museum in madrid why not end a day of culture in one of madrids many cafes giving out local food
whether you want to chill out or get a taste of the local culture spain has it all thats why it will
remain a popular tourist destination for years to come

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What is a persuasive essay?

A persuasive essay is one in which you attempt to get the reader to agree with your point of view.
You are trying to present arguments, research, and ideas in order to sway the reader one way or the
other.

How to start a persuasive essay?

The Introduction

Such a paragraph might include a brief summary of the ideas to be discussed in body of the paper as
well as other information relevant to your paper's argument. The most important function of the
introductory paragraph, however, is to present a clear statement of the paper's argument.

The 5 Must-Have Steps of a Persuasive Essay

If you’re intimidated by the idea of writing an argument, use this list to break your process into
manageable chunks. Tackle researching and writing one element at a time, and then revise your
essay so that it flows smoothly and coherently with every component in the optimal place.

1. A topic or issue to argue

This is probably the hardest step. You need to identify a topic or issue that is narrow enough to
cover in the length of your piece—and is also arguable from more than one
position. Your topic must call for an opinion, and not be a simple fact.

It might be helpful to walk through this process:

1. Identify a random topic

2. Ask a question about the topic that involves a value claim or analysis to answer
3. Answer the question
That answer is your opinion.
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Let’s consider some examples, from silly to serious:

Topic: Dolphins and mermaids

Question: In a mythical match, who would win: a dolphin or a mermaid?

Answer/Opinion: The mermaid would win in a match against a dolphin.

Topic: Autumn

Question: Which has a better fall: New England or Colorado?

Answer/Opinion: Fall is better in New England than Colorado.

Topic: Electric transportation options

Question: Would it be better for an urban dweller to buy an electric bike or an electric car?

Answer/Opinion: An electric bike is a better investment than an electric car.

Your turn: Walk through the three-step process described above to identify your topic and your
tentative opinion. You may want to start by brainstorming a list of topics you find interesting and
then going use the three-step process to find the opinion that would make the best essay topic.

2. An unequivocal thesis statement

If you walked through our three-step process above, you already have some semblance of a thesis—
but don’t get attached too soon!

A solid essay thesis is best developed through the research process. You shouldn’t land on an
opinion before you know the facts. So press pause. Take a step back. And dive into your research.

You’ll want to learn:

 The basic facts of your topic. How long does fall last in New England vs. Colorado? What
trees do they have? What colors do those trees turn?

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  The facts specifically relevant to your question. Is there any science on how the varying
colors of fall influence human brains and moods?
 What experts or other noteworthy and valid sources say about the question you’re
considering. Has a well-known arborist waxed eloquent on the beauty of New England falls?
As you learn the different viewpoints people have on your topic, pay attention to the strengths and
weaknesses of existing arguments. Is anyone arguing the perspective you’re leaning toward? Do
you find their arguments convincing? What do you find unsatisfying about the various arguments?

Allow the research process to change your mind and/or refine your thinking on the
topic. Your opinion may change entirely or become more specific based on what you learn.

Once you’ve done enough research to feel confident in your understanding of the topic and your
opinion on it, craft your thesis.

Your thesis statement should be clear and concise. It should directly state your viewpoint on the
topic, as well as the basic case for your thesis.

Thesis 1: In a mythical match, the mermaid would overcome the dolphin due to one distinct
advantage: her ability to breathe underwater.

Thesis 2: The full spectrum of color displayed on New England hillsides is just one reason why fall
in the northeast is better than in Colorado.

Thesis 3: In addition to not adding to vehicle traffic, electric bikes are a better investment than
electric cars because they’re cheaper and require less energy to accomplish the same function of
getting the rider from point A to point B.
Your turn: Dive into the research process with a radar up for the arguments your sources are
making about your topic. What are the most convincing cases? Should you stick with your initial
opinion or change it up? Write your fleshed-out thesis statement.

3. Evidence to back up your thesis

This is a typical place for everyone from undergrads to politicians to get stuck, but the good news
is, if you developed your thesis from research, you already have a good bit of evidence to make
your case.

Go back through your research notes and compile a list of every …

 Fact
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  Quote
 Statistic
 Definition
… or other piece of information that supports your thesis.

This info can come from research studies you found in scholarly journals, government publications,
news sources, encyclopedias, or other credible sources (as long as they fit your professor’s
standards).

As you put this list together, watch for any gaps or weak points. Are you missing information on
how electric cars versus electric bicycles charge or how long their batteries last? Did you verify that
dolphins are, in fact, mammals and can’t breathe underwater like totally-real-and-not-at-all-fake 😉
mermaids can? Track down that information.

Next, organize your list. Group the entries so that similar or closely related information is together,
and as you do that, start thinking through how to articulate the individual arguments to support your
case.

Depending on the length of your essay, each argument may get only a paragraph or two of space.
As you think through those specific arguments, consider what order to put them in. You’ll probably
want to start with the simplest argument and work up to more complicated ones so that the
arguments can build on each other.

Your turn: Organize your evidence and write a rough draft of your arguments. Play around with
the order to find the most compelling way to argue your case.

4. Rebuttals to disprove opposing theses

You can’t just present the evidence to support your case and totally ignore other viewpoints. To
persuade your readers, you’ll need to address any opposing ideas they may hold about your topic.

You probably found some holes in the opposing views during your research process. Now’s your
chance to expose those holes.

Take some time (and space) to: describe the opposing views and show why those views don’t
hold up. You can accomplish this using both logic and facts.

Is a perspective based on a faulty assumption or misconception of the truth? Shoot it down by

providing the facts that disprove the opinion.
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Is another opinion drawn from bad or unsound reasoning? Show how that argument falls apart.

Some cases may truly be only a matter of opinion, but you still need to articulate why you
don’t find the opposing perspective convincing.

Yes, a dolphin might be stronger than a mermaid, but as a mammal, the dolphin must continually
return to the surface for air. A mermaid can breathe both underwater and above water, which gives
her a distinct advantage in this mythical battle.

While the Rocky Mountain views are stunning, their limited colors—yellow from aspen trees and
green from various evergreens—leaves the autumn-lover less than thrilled. The rich reds and
oranges and yellows of the New England fall are more satisfying and awe-inspiring.

But what about longer trips that go beyond the city center into the suburbs and beyond? An electric
bike wouldn’t be great for those excursions. Wouldn’t an electric car be the better choice then?

Certainly, an electric car would be better in these cases than a gas-powered car, but if most of a
person’s trips are in their hyper-local area, the electric bicycle is a more environmentally friendly
option for those day-to-day outings. That person could then participate in a carshare or use public
transit, a ride-sharing app, or even a gas-powered car for longer trips—and still use less energy
overall than if they drove an electric car for hyper-local and longer area trips.
Your turn: Organize your rebuttal research and write a draft of each one.

5. A convincing conclusion

You have your arguments and rebuttals. You’ve proven your thesis is rock-solid. Now all you have
to do is sum up your overall case and give your final word on the subject.

Don’t repeat everything you’ve already said. Instead, your conclusion should logically draw from
the arguments you’ve made to show how they coherently prove your thesis. You’re pulling
everything together and zooming back out with a better understanding of the what and why of your
thesis.

A dolphin may never encounter a mermaid in the wild, but if it were to happen, we know how we’d
place our bets. Long hair and fish tail, for the win.

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For those of us who relish 50-degree days, sharp air, and the vibrant colors of fall, New England
offers a season that’s cozier, longer-lasting, and more aesthetically pleasing than “colorful”
Colorado. A leaf-peeper’s paradise.

When most of your trips from day to day are within five miles, the more energy-efficient—and yes,
cost-efficient—choice is undoubtedly the electric bike. So strap on your helmet, fire up your pedals,
and two-wheel away to your next destination with full confidence that you made the right decision
for your wallet and the environment.

3 Quick Tips for Writing a Strong Argument

Once you have a draft to work with, use these tips to refine your argument and make sure you’re not
losing readers for avoidable reasons.

1. Choose your words thoughtfully.

If you want to win people over to your side, don’t write in a way that shuts your opponents down.
Avoid making abrasive or offensive statements. Instead, use a measured, reasonable tone. Appeal to
shared values, and let your facts and logic do the hard work of changing people’s minds.

2. Prioritize accuracy (and avoid fallacies).

Make sure the facts you use are actually factual. You don’t want to build your argument on false or
disproven information. Use the most recent, respected research. Make sure you don’t misconstrue
study findings. And when you’re building your case, avoid logical fallacies that undercut your
argument.

A few common fallacies to watch out for:

 Strawman: Misrepresenting or oversimplifying an opposing argument to make it easier to

refute.
 Appeal to ignorance: Arguing that a certain claim must be true because it hasn’t been
proven false.
 Bandwagon: Assumes that if a group of people, experts, etc., agree with a claim, it must be
true.

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  Hasty generalization: Using a few examples, rather than substantial evidence, to make a
sweeping claim.
 Appeal to authority: Overly relying on opinions of people who have authority of some kind.
The strongest arguments rely on trustworthy information and sound logic.

3. Persuasive essay structure

If you’re building a house, you start with the foundation and go from there. It’s the same with an
argument. You want to build from the ground up: provide necessary background information, then
your thesis. Then, start with the simplest part of your argument and build up in terms of complexity
and the aspect of your thesis that the argument is tackling.

A consistent, internal logic will make it easier for the reader to follow your argument. Plus, you’ll
avoid confusing your reader and you won’t be unnecessarily redundant.

The essay structure usually includes the following parts:

 Intro - Hook, Background information, Thesis statement

 Topic sentence #1, with supporting facts or stats
 Concluding sentence
 Topic sentence #2, with supporting facts or stats
 Concluding sentence
Topic sentence #3, with supporting facts or stats
 Concluding sentence
 Conclusion - Thesis and main points restated, call to action, thought provoking ending

Are You Ready to Write?

Persuasive essays are a great way to hone your research, writing, and critical thinking skills.
Approach this assignment well, and you’ll learn how to form opinions based on information (not
just ideas) and make arguments that—if they don’t change minds—at least win readers’ respect.

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 Introduction to Poetry
Theoretical Background:
Poetry has been around for almost four thousand years. Like other forms of literature, poetry is
written to share ideas, express emotions, and create imagery. Poets choose words for their meaning
and music, arranging them to create a tempo known as the meter. Some poems incorporate rhyme
schemes, with two or more lines that end in like-sounding words.
Today, poetry remains an important part of art and culture. Every year, the United States Library of
Congress appoints a Poet Laureate to represent the art of poetry in America. From Shakespearean
sonnets to Maya Angelou’s reflective compositions, poems are long-lived, read and recited for
generations.

What is poetry?
Poetry is a type of literature that conveys a thought, describes a scene or tells a story in a
concentrated, lyrical arrangement of words.
Poems can be structured, with rhyming lines and meter, the rhythm and emphasis of a line based
on syllabic beats. Poems can also be freeform, which follows no formal structure.
The basic building block of a poem is a verse known as a stanza. A stanza is a grouping of lines
related to the same thought or topic, similar to a paragraph.

What Is Meter in Poetry?

A poem can contain many elements to give it structure. Rhyme is perhaps the most common of
these elements, but equally important is meter, which imposes specific length and emphasis on a
given line of poetry.
Meter is the basic rhythmic structure of a line within a work of poetry. Meter consists of two
components:
1. The number of syllables.
2. A pattern of emphasis on those syllables.

What Is a Stanza?
In poetry, a stanza is used to describe the main building block of a poem. It is a unit of poetry
composed of lines that relate to a similar thought or topic—like a paragraph or a verse in a song.
Every stanza in a poem has its own concept and serves a unique purpose. A stanza may be arranged

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according to rhyming patterns and meters. It can also be a free-flowing verse that has no formal
structure.
Example for a stanza:
Stanza one:
You left me – sire – two legacies-
A legacy of love
A heavenly father would suffice
Had he the offer of –

Stanza two:
You left me boundaries of pain –
Capacious as the sea –
Between eternity and time –
Your consciousness – and me –

What are the most common Types of Poetic Forms?

1- Haiku:
A haiku is a Japanese three-line poem composed of simple, striking language.
E.G. Autumn moonlight- a worm digs silently into the chestnut.

2- Sonnet:
Though often associated with love thanks to William Shakespeare, sonnets have been around since
the thirteenth-century Italy, where they were known as “little songs.” Sonnets have 14 lines, with 10
syllables a piece, and no set rhyme scheme.
E.G. Sonnet Number 43 by Elizabeth Barrett Browning is a particularly well-written sonnet.

3- Free Verse:
Free verse is a type of poem that appeals to those who find strict forms intimidating. There are no
rules, the poem can establish any rhythm, and rhyme is entirely optional.

4- Ballad:
A ballad is a form of narrative verse, and its focus on storytelling can be musical or poetic.
An example of a ballad is Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.

5- Epics:
Epic poetry refers to very long poems which tell a story. They contain detailed adventures and
extraordinary feats performed by characters (they can be real or fictional) whom are often from a
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distant past. The term ‘epic’ was derived from the accomplishments, adventures, and bravado of
these poems. Homer’s The Iliad and Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queen are famous epics which
are often studied at length by students and scholars alike.

6- Occasional Poetry :
The term occasional poetry refers to poems written to describe or comment on a particular event.
They are often written for a public reading, and their topics range from sad, serious matters like
war, to more joyous ones like birthdays and presidential inaugurations.
Praise Song for the Day by Elizabeth Alexander is an example of occasional poetry.

What Is Imagery in Poetry?

In poetry and literature, imagery is the use of figurative language to evoke a sensory experience in
the reader. When a poet uses descriptive language well, they play to the reader’s senses, providing
them with sights, tastes, smells, sounds, internal and external feelings, and even internal emotion.

How Is Imagery Used in Poetry?

Imagery allows the reader to clearly see, touch, taste, smell, and hear what is happening—and in
some cases even empathize with the poet or their subject.

The most common types of Imagery are:

Visual imagery:
In this form of poetic imagery, the poet appeals to the reader’s sense of sight by describing
something the speaker or narrator of the poem sees. It may include colors, brightness, shapes, sizes,
and patterns.

William Wordsworth’s classic 1804 poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” is a good example:
I wandered lonely as a cloud
That floats on high o’er vales and hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils;
Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Auditory imagery:
This form of poetic imagery appeals to the reader’s sense of hearing or sound. It may include music
and other pleasant sounds, harsh noises, or silence.
In John Keats’ short 1820 poem “To Autumn” he concludes with auditory imagery:
Where are the songs of Spring? Ay, where are they?
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 Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,
While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,
And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn
Among the river shallows, borne aloft
Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;
And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

Poets create imagery by using figures of speech like simile; metaphor; personification; and
onomatopoeia.

What Is a Figure of Speech?

A figure of speech, also known as a rhetorical figure or figurative language, is a form of expression
that deviates from the expected, normal use of words or phrases to demonstrate an idea or add
weight to an opinion.

What are the most common figures of speech?

There are dozens of different figures of speech in the English language that we use in both literature
and everyday life. It would be nearly impossible to memorize them all, but learning to identify a
few examples of figures of speech can help you become a better reader and writer.

Apostrophe:
When a speaker addresses a third party that is not immediately present and can’t realistically
respond. For example: the poet, Walt Whitman’s poem, ‘O Captain! My Captain!’ is an elegy
written to remember and honor the death of U. S. President Abraham Lincoln.

Hyperbole:

An exaggeration used to emphasize a concept or argument. For example, the phrase “I have a
million things to do” is not meant in the literal sense, but it implies that the speaker has so much to
do that there may as well be one million items on their to-do list.

Personification:
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When nonhuman or inanimate objects are assigned human characteristics or human qualities. For
example, the phrase “the wind howled through the night” gives the wind a human quality (howling)
even though it is not a living object.

Simile:
A comparison of two different things that uses the word “like” or “as.” For example, “the baby was
as cute as a button” effectively compares a baby to a button using the word “as” to join them
together.

A metaphor:
a figure of speech that ascribes imaginary qualities to something by comparing it to another. It’s a
literary device of comparison that depicts reality by associating objects or actions.
Metaphors, alongside similes, fall into the general category of literary "tropes." Unlike similes, the
comparison of two objects in a metaphor does not involve words of comparison such as "as" or
"like
For example: In the poem "Invictus" by William Ernest Henley, the poet uses "the night" and "the
shade" to signify pain and death respectively.
Line 1: "the night that covers me"

Diction:
refers to the poet's choice of words in a poem. Words vary in their levels of term, and we can speak
of words as being concrete or general. Words also vary in their formality, and some genres, such as
epic and tragedy, call for use of elevated rather than plain language.
Example: the best example is William Wordsworth poem ‘’the Rainbow’’ when I behold a rainbow
in the sky. (Behold) here means to see.
Contrast:
Contrast is a rhetorical device used by a writer to emphasize the differences between two people,
places or things. It's the opposition between two objects, with their differences highlighted and
explained.
Contrast means difference, especially when that difference is very noticeable. It usually shows up in
pairs: steak and salad, salt and pepper, table and chairs, hero and villain, etc.
Contrast often means “opposite”: for example, black is the opposite of white, and so there’s a
contrast between black ink and white paper. But contrast can also happen when the two things are
just very different. For example, cats and dogs are definitely a contrast, but they’re not opposites.
The best example of contrast is Charles Dickens’s opening paragraph in his novel A Tale of Two
Cities.
‘It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it
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was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had
everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all
going direct the other way – in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its
noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil.’

What Are Sound Devices?

Sound devices are literary techniques that describe how words sound in a poem. They are also
known as musical devices. The choice of words in a poem can have different or similar sounds,
regular or irregular syllables, repetition of similar sounds, and a playful usage of words.

What are the most common sound devices?

Rhyme: Rhyme is the repetition of words with the same sound in a poem. The pattern of
similarly pronounced words in a poem is thus known as a rhyme scheme.
The popular position of rhyming words is often at the end of lines, whereby the last word of a line
rhymes with the last word of another line in the poem.
Example: from Robert Frost's "Acquainted with the Night."
Proclaimed the time was neither wrong nor right. I have been one acquainted with the night.

Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected
words in a sentence or phrase. For example, the common tongue twister “she sells seashells by the
seashore” features repeating “s” and “sh” sounds

Onomatopoeia: Onomatopoeia is a sound device that represents the exact sound of something in the
poem. The poet forms a word to imitate the sound made by the object in the poem. Onomatopoeia is
common in children's songs and poems.
For example, the word ticktock emulates the sound of a clock when read out loud.

Repetition: The definition of repetition in poetry is repeating words, phrases, lines, or stanzas. It is
an intentional technique that the author uses throughout the poem.
They can help build rhythm by introducing recurring sounds and syllables. This rhythm can be
utilized to form a rhyme scheme.

Example:
The dog trots freely in the street
And sees reality
And the things he sees
The dog trots freely thru the street
And the things he sees
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Are smaller than himself

Practice
Choose the correct answer:

1- Which of the following is an example of onomatopoeia?

a) The truck winked at me
b) The cat was as mad as a tree
c) Lazy lizards lounge
d) Whisper, slap, smack I hear in the lunch room

2- Which of the following is an example of metaphor?

a) The glasses smiled at me
b) Cute cats chase toys
c) Snow is like the sun
d) My life is a dream

3- Which of the following is an example of simile?

a) Hiss, slurp, hush, scream--MOM!
b) Hopping hens shop for shoes
c) My hand is as cold as snow
d) The shirt said, "Wear Me!"

4- Which of the following is an example of alliteration?

a) The TV laughed at the desk
b) Calculating computers catch cats
c) Pictures are captured people
d) Crash, bang, boom goes the lion

5- Which of the following is an example of simile?

a) The fluorescent light was the sun during our test.

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b) As the teacher entered the room she muttered under her breath, "This class is like a three-ring
circus!"
c) Ted was as nervous as a cat with a long tail in a room full of rocking chairs.
d) The bar of soap was a slippery eel during the dog’s bath.

6- Which of the following is an example of alliteration?

a) My hair is a vast forest
b) I sat by the river. I lived by the sea. I died by the lake.
c) Pants are like legs
d) Dogs dodge digging dandelions

7- Which of the following is an example of metaphor?

a) Talking turtles torture teachers
b) I am a cloud
c) The dog smiles at me
d) Meow, woof, tweet went the animals

8- Which of the following is an example of a metaphor?

a) I am experiencing a rollercoaster of emotions.
b) That car is like a rocket.
c) I am not happy with my results.

9- Which of the following is an example of personification?

a) I am going through a lot of emotions right now.
b) I think that time flies when I am having fun.
c) My mother looked like a sunflower today.
d) I love this dress!

10- Which of the following is an example of alliteration?

a) The group sang sweetly.
b) I like eating tacos.
c) My brother is a drummist.
d) We have a group of thirty typists.
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Analyze the following:
Write the rhyme scheme, figures of speech and sound devices of the following two poems:
1-Twinkle, Twinkle little star
How I wonder what you are!
Up above the world so high
Like a diamond in the sky.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

2-Once upon a younger year

When all our shadows disappear
The animals outside came out to play
Went face to face with all our fears
Learned our lessons through the tears
Made memories we knew would never fade
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….

Literature

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ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE

Let’s look more closely at the elements of literature:

• Characters

• Plot

• Setting

• Narrative Techniques

• Themes

Characters Explained

• All stories have a character or characters. The author uses the character’s actions in the story
as a driving force for the plot – the sequence of events.

• Characters in stories can be humans, animals, or inanimate objects; anything that can be
described as an individual in the story.

• The main character in a story is often called the ‘protagonist’. Most stories also include an
‘antagonist’, who directly or indirectly sets up conflicts, obstacles or challenges for the
protagonist. We’ll look at this in more detail later.

Major Characters

• Major Characters - These are characters that contribute significantly to the development of
the plot.

• The author uses their actions to drive the events of the story.

• These characters are often (although not always) seen or referred to frequently throughout the
story. In Escape to Last Man Peak Matron is never seen, but often referred to, and Teacher
Mack appears only briefly, but is quite influential on the children’s journey.

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Minor Characters

• Minor characters – These are characters who do NOT contribute significantly to the
development of the main plot.

• They are often seen in short sections of the story, rather than throughout the whole story.

• These characters may not even appear in person, but might simply be mentioned by other
characters.

• Minor characters may be useful in changing the tone of the story, or diffusing tension, for
example.

Protagonist

Who is a protagonist?

We know that a protagonist is one of the leading characters (or group of characters) of a story or
novel. As such, the protagonist is often seen as the hero, main character or narrator of the story. The
protagonist is a major character.

The protagonist plays an important role in the story because he/she is the character the story is
based on.

In Escape to Last Man Peak the children as a group could be seen as the protagonist.

Antagonist

Who is an Antagonist?

Think of a character as a coin, on this coin the protagonist would be on the front of the coin and the
antagonist would be on the back.

Based on this example, you will realize that the Antagonist is the opposite of the Protagonist.

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The Antagonist may be the villain in the story. The job of the Antagonist is to oppose the
Protagonist as such often the Antagonist is seen as the enemy of the Protagonist.

Characterization

How does the author make the characters reveal their personality or character traits in the story?

This process can be done through direct or indirect characterization.

Direct Characterization – This is when the author directly and clearly describes the traits and
personality of the characters.

Indirect Characterization – Here the author doesn’t tell you what the character’s traits are, but
these are revealed through the character’s Speech, Thoughts, Effect on others, Actions and Looks
(STEAL).

Round Character

• A ‘round’ or ‘rounded’ character is a dynamic character who grows and changes during the
course of the story.

• It is easier for the author to develop a round character in a novel than in a short story because
of the extended nature of the work.

• In Escape to Last Man Peak the children grow and develop during the course of the story, as
they encounter many new experiences.

Flat Character

The opposite of a round character. A flat character does not grow or develop or change throughout
the story.

A flat character may be thought of as one dimensional, meaning they have no depth.
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Often this type of character can be seen as being a stereotype, just representative of one type of
character rather than someone capable of change and nuance.

In Escape to Last Man Peak, the policeman who visits the Orphanage in the beginning of the book
could be seen as a flat character.

Elements of Plot

Plot

The plot of the story/novel is the sequence of events that makes up the narrative.

A very common plot structure moves from the opening (exposition) through action, conflict, climax
to the ending, or resolution:

Exposition

• The exposition is designed to introduce or present the story and provide information about the
setting and characters.

• It helps the reader to understand the context of the story.

• The exposition is also helps to propel the events of the plot.

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 • In Escape to Last Man Peak, the story opens with Nellie, the narrator, being woken up; as the
story moves through the day, it introduces a lot of information about Sunrise Home and the
children’s situation, and sets the scene for the whole story.

Conflict

The conflict in the novel helps to drive the plot. It can be internal (within one character) or external.

INTERNAL CONFLICT

• The character engages in a physical, mental or emotional struggle with some aspect of
himself/herself.

EXTERNAL CONFLICT

• The character struggles with other characters.

• The character struggles with some aspect of nature.

• The character struggles with some aspect of society, for example a local community or a
national government or institution.

Climax

• The climax describes the point at which the conflict and action in the story reaches its peak.

• This is highest point of action in a story or novel when the reader is sitting on the edge of
their seats not sure what will happen next.

• In Escape to Last Man Peak, the climax could be said to be the point at which the children
pass the gang of bad boys at Windsor.

Resolution

• The resolution of the conflict occurs at the end of the story and shows that the conflict has
come to a close, at least temporarily.

• The story doesn’t always tell you exactly what happens in the end, but it does come to a
resolution leaving the reader with an understanding of what has happened.
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 • In Escape to Last Man Peak, the story ends at the end of the children’s journey, with them all
safe at Last Man Peak, although it leaves open the question of what happens to them later.

Setting

Setting explained

• Simply put, the setting is the environment in which the story takes place.

• Sometimes the setting of a novel can change throughout a story.

• This is seen in the novel, Escape to Last Man Peak in which the setting of the story changes
as the children journey through the interior of the country.

Time

• Time is an important element of setting because it frames for the reader the period in which
the story is taking place.
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 • This helps the reader to understand some of the events and issues presented.

• This sets the scene historically, describing whether the story is set in the present day, or in the
past, or even in the future.

It also affects the pace of the story, does it describe events in a short period of time, or over many
years?

Weather

• The weather describes the conditions that influence the physical environment in which the
narrative is taking place.

• The author sometimes uses the weather to set the tone of the narrative.

• In Escape to Last Man Peak, the weather is often described, because it makes a big difference
to the children’s experiences and their journey.

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the emotional environment or mood of the story. Atmosphere can be created by
the time of day, the physical state of the environment (bright/cheerful or dull/dreary/dingy), the
level of tension or safety that is felt, etc. Here is an example from Escape to Last Man Peak, as the
children approach a dangerous but exciting climax:

The darkness grew intense, and the silence seemed loud all around us. Not a sound came from the
river nearby, and not a breath of wind moved the leaves of the trees. The hooves of the calves and
the donkey had been muffled with strips of blanket, and all of us moved silently on bare feet. The
only sounds I could hear were the soft thud-thud of hooves, my own breathing, and now and then
the small clatter of a stone.

Narrative Techniques

• Narrative techniques are the devices the author uses to convey meaning.

• Here are some examples:

 Point of view
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  Flashback

 Foreshadowing

 Irony

 Symbols

 Motifs

Point of View

The point of view is the perspective from which the story is written.

The first person point of view is told from the story-teller’s (or narrator’s) perspective. The
pronouns that are used include I, me, my.

The third person point of view is told by a narrator who is not part of the story, and is not
describing their own experiences. Third person pronouns include he, she, they, them, his, hers.

First Person Point of View

• The narrator is the character telling the story. The narrator is often the protagonist of
the story, telling their own story.

• This means the reader only sees what the narrator sees or thinks.

• Therefore, the reader might also experience the biases of the narrator.

Third Person Point of View

• When the story is told from the third person point of view the reader usually gets a broader
perspective.

• There may be one narrator or several narrators, but their story is not limited to what their
characters actually experience in the story. They have an overview, not a partial view of the
action.

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 • Let’s look at the third person point of view in more detail.

Third Person Limited

• As the name suggests although the story is told in the third person, the narrator does
not see everything, so this perspective is limited in what is presented.

Third Person Omniscient

• From this perspective the author knows and relates all the feelings, actions and events
that occur in the story.

• This story is told by an all-knowing (omniscient) figure.

Flashback

• Flashback is a narrative technique that shows the readers events that occurred in the past.

• Flashback is used to give the reader information about events in the past, to help them
understand and identify issues they encounter in the story.

Foreshadowing

• The author sometimes provides the readers with clues/hints of events that might occur as the
story or novel progresses.

• For example, in Escape to Last Man Peak, the children leave Sunrise Home shortly before
Christmas, and Pauline takes the Home’s Christmas decorations with her. This could be an
example of foreshadowing in hinting that the children might reach safety in time for
Christmas.

Irony

There are at least three types of irony that you will find in stories; these are:

• Irony

• Dramatic Irony;

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 • Situational Irony.

Irony is a narrative technique that highlights the opposite of what is expected. Therefore, a situation
is identified as being ironic if the final outcome is the opposite of what was expected.

Symbols

• A symbol is something (colour, element of nature, an item, etc.) that is used to represent
something else.

• In Escape to Last Man Peak, Bess the dog could be said to be the symbol of strength and
loyalty, guiding and guarding the children.

Motifs

• What is a motif in literature? A motif is an object, image, sound, or phrase that is repeated
throughout a story to point toward the story's larger theme.

Theme

A theme is the overall idea the author tries to convey to the reader.

Some common themes that are presented in a number of contemporary classics:

• Childhood Experiences

• Love and family relationships

• Discrimination

• Racism

• Death

• Friendship

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