Control surveys 271

In the case of an angle, the traverse can be computed forward from X(Figure 6. 18) and then
backwards from Y. The point
which has the same in cach case, is where the blunder
urred and the angle must be reobserved. co-ordinates
This process can be carried out by plotting usime
protractor and scale.
traverse,
Alternatively the right angled bisector of the error vector YY of the plotted
will pass through the required
equilateral triangle. point (Figure 6.18). The theory is that BYY forms an
In the case of a blunder in
measuring distance, the incorrect
similar to the bearing of the error vector. If there are several leg is the one whose bearing is
legs with similar bearings the method
oils Again the incorrect leg must be remeasured.

6.2 TRIANGULATION

Because, at one time, it was casier to measure angles than it was distance, triangulation was the
prefered method of establishing the position of control points.
Many countries used triangulation as the basis of their national mapping system. Thc procedure
was generally to establish primary triangulation networks, with triangles having sides ranging
from 30 to 50 km in length. The primary trig points were fixed at the corners of these triangles
and the sum of the measured angles was correct to +3". These points were usually established
on the tops of mountains to afford long, uninterrupted sight lines. The primary network was then
densified with points at closer intervals connected into the primary triangles. This secondary
Detwork had sides of 10-20 km with a reduction in observational accuracy. Finally, a third
order net, adjusted to the secondary control, was established at 3-5-km intervals and fourth-order
points fixed by intersection. Figure 6.19 illustrates such a triangulation system established by the
Ordnance Survev of Great Britain and used as control for the production of national maps. The
base line and check base line would be measured by invar tapes in catenary and connected into
the triangulation by angular extension procedures. This approach
S now obsolete. The more modern approach would be
is classical triangulation, which
measure the base lines with EDM
cquipment and to include many more measured lines in the network, to afford greater control of
scale error. compared with national eures
the areas involved in construction are relatively Small
Althoughint the term 'microtriangulation') the accuracy requiredl in establishing the control surveys
(resulting
Is frequently of a very high order, e.g. long tunnels or dam deformation measurements.

WA

Fig. 6.18
272 Engineering Surveying

Fig. 6.19 An example of a triangulation

The principles of the method are illustrated by the typical basic figures shownin igure o
of
all the angles are measured, then the scale of the network is obtained by the measurementresuk
will
side only, i.e. the base line. Any eror, therefore, in the measurement of the base line shoukt
lines
scale error throughout the network. Thus, in order to control this error, check basei measured
measured at intervals. The scale error is defined as the difference betweenSides the thetrianlo
of
computed check base. Using the base line and adjusted angles the remaining
may be found and subsequently the coordinates of the control stations. intere
clearof
Triangulation is best suited to open, hilly country, affording longsights welll
control stations are
lerrain. In urban areas, roof-top triangulation is used, in which the
the roofs of accessible buildings.
6.2.1 Shape of the triangle Fieur
624
in
ABC
The sides of the Fromtriangle
network are computed by the sine rule. us
log b=log c+ log sin B- log sin C i
found n
the
angleD
of
The effect on sideb of errors in and C is
Imcasurement
angles B
Consider an error Sb in sideb duetheto measurement or
an angular error. SB in the
 Control surveys 273
Control stations

Control stations

cy (a) Chain of simple triangles. (b) braced quadrilalerals and (c) polygons with central points

SB cot B
Similarly for an error 8C in
angle C:
BC cot C
regard the above
errors as standard errors and combine them, the result is
((o cot B +(oc C)' j
cot
Furhes, asSuming cqual angular errors, i.e. ¡g == Oc= Orad, then
b
o(cop B+
cot
Eomqupauitoen (6Side8) inwilldicatbees that
b as angles Band Capproach 90°, the effect of angular error on the
(6.8)

a
minimum. Thus the ideal network for Figure 6.20(a) would be to have
 i
ie.
Ahere
possetey 00:
cOmputa0o,
indicaik angles
the
resultas the
u
base
and ometf of hinvolved.
be
od ofcoordinatesnow Surveying prqouaUsdmostirnSheconomie
ilaterals
With best networs . Smal the:
ag pedrespect
coscaland
e between
this theVIsited
/200
to where
Computatuon, well
due Stations
proposition =
triangles rad
scale o
as
when
1/82000.This
angles,
that the sights
will
which
adjustment,
The
commensurate
the in if25°,into
useful
ato
Intervisibil
errOr
and
andshown
for also well-designed
essential. square
enter
equilateral
the
practical =3-i
B=C. ofaspects of braced
observation. to than complete,
be
andoflength
positions
Scale enter
triangle: approximately
line shape then
be areless should
60° basecan if used observe,
stationsisareaOverall
when terrain,
ensure does
not
the f to
a of cot each
error
possible
be and
the
requiredfigural presented,
angles
intobe usenot theIt any strongest binocula
however.
enter theas as in triangles. scale to measurements. of the plotted
to area
then error
be of instrument survey
and
economy view
ofthe which
is
so measurement c)
would best and of no
fixed the
not compromise
not,
t1", the ca²
error well-conditioned
in the station been
reduction, the
plans
and their
be
are the
side
a aidof
do
wouldangles
andbe times + improvement
ensurei important plan
there
cotC
which = precision has for of at can
cannotextra
with
precision.
o 1/245000
= base-line three-dimensional
opposite
and scale target maps
triangulationpositions
stationsthe
arestationsthat With
the
the
best
sidesnetwork 60°
n
be
B
the in becomescot to
stations.
area,
on
existing the
and ensure is
triangulation
accuracy most
the the C=
= will triangles, + no 6.2.2 the and areadjustment
drawn between situated investigated
=ni/245000and B
General
procedure typeon line bestthe
a Iandsmall
Ifinevitable
error .gb angles
CE
DF.
opposite shows the the to all triangles
introduction
to
Surveying
274
Engineering
Such B=
that
Assuming
thethedependComputation:
coverage,
should
measured
be 1/200000
= the nine -(co
(6.8)
bases
maximum of
of
base
of direct
of Consideration
theoretically Reconnaissance methods.
is
the
access be
ensure of
Reconnaissance can of
a
giving
profiles
made
be
angles are equation Construction study conditions beshouldpaper
now triangles check these
Observation single
stations station
carefully
should
BC.
AD.
and ground say, of photographs,
to ease plan, the
small after,for regular of general is careful of it
need adjusted, All in
detail. Tunction avoided
igures, chains the attempt When
limited b n Thus, which Survey more
very After A
thefor ) (2) (3) (4)(5) A ) of
Control
surveys shape,
275 so construction accordingly.
illustrated
to the when formaccurately the of measuredsquares coordinates
the 3. equal base-the 'equal
must, angles braced should (6.10)
to
va
not order and at number
triangulation Chapterjustment
out.
using of
is its nightuse. Whateverbisection carried
the
standard themany simpler
angles theas angles
involved as
siting of in
be in
least known
the
angles all such from
computed
thefunctionthose out at to being appropriate As of
located
carried out target
illustrated
certainly a
be
the
finally
then
country,
factor. thethe sumfigures,the
whole,for the km,
for
base-line of 6.10. accurate In why
sight
carried of not methods
satisfactoryform
a position be of Figure capable 4. reason scale values thatother 10
is of type An most,as should
Chapter method and
the
EDM, network then length be for lessrule thelocal a than
onlyin closed.accuracy, rigorous
would
simpler, as final is triangle
that beof
is their takeshould may shown be shape
in
no
sine of scheme.
ds network greater
conditions may
of ground may the observations
the should is the
system The
the and and withhorizon basehigh there
established,
the separately.
figure. plane
ofadjustment and
advent on be
andstation depend targets coordinates by
multiplied sides
of forgotten
thestrength would size dealt check
it ensure using mapping the the triangle
the
stability in of
necessary the included each a of with
the that the that
precise been and adjustment of number
Since willthelampsare and to computed network Agereference,
ensure
thebe long-term of
networks, alreadylinemade of by
used and shifts
national of adjustment triangles.
avoided.
not referencing
whilst
used the
signal
considerations
the
wellvariation
balanced be Imnimum
to should use be basecorrections MSL equal the
the should the excess
studied target afford hasinevitably now be
to The of than
rather
Finally, for precise
case,possible
the
sides
may to to Squares
methods
permitIn of
20626. Eart
rayS stations complete
date. angles is be
may reduced
possible condition ellipsoid
spherical
be constructedof type a and face. computers connected by treats
each
figure to this
should such essential necessary obtained. conditions
ground-grazing
stations. future highly point adjustment trianglexthe
be used.thewould
observation
distances each t favoured
survey the now be
The due an the of
A In may
conditions a stated, for minimal. survey of on completion, must
be lOnal is on R radiu
survey be 6.8.at it the
servation
directions
taken the of point survey
points
the
Simple 180°.It
triangle. triangles
iS
the must and location required. sights
takes, use
to
Me
measurements are
to
180°
+E.E of
already the all is E"Area
and long-term of 6.7 is over De with the Allernatively survey
li
the
surveyy Figural hifts
approach
satisty
cqual
atitateras,
e R= \ s c a l
Soil nurpose
Stations
Figures
its short
reractiontarget of EDM, Since On
ils,
Veast reate
ve
heckedial KCUracy udEn shifts.
tach Sever,
ensure As For he lred mal 62.3
f ihe 2) in 3) hu by S)
 Ng + 2[(Eg - E) sin ß
Np = be carried l out using observed
resection can also
methods for the solution of a
distances.
Intersection and
Althoughthere are and a large
number of
three-point
circumference of a circle. Many of the resection
P lie on the
them fail if A, B, C and Clie in a straight line.
Care should be exercised in
the
methods
abo
dubious results if A, B independent checks used wherever possible. Field
meths
computation adopted and
eliminate either of the above situations occurring: for configurations
s

be used which will clearly an obvious solution. example,

sty
A, B and C. is
within a triangle formed by

LATERATION
6.3 TRILA
measured horizontal distances, has gained acceplance be
Trilateration, based exclusively on

Fig. 6.27
 Control surveys 287

advent of EDM instrumentation. The geometric figures used are similar to those employed
o ation., although not as standardized due to greater control of scale errOr. It was originally
dthat trilateration would supersede triangulation as a method of control due to the scale
Cuetor. HOwever, subsequent results have shown that the system is liable to a rapid accumulation
fuimuth error, ethereby requiring a dense system of control points.
Te fact that there is no horizontal angle measurement required in trilateration would appear to
mke it more rapid and thus, at first glance, more economical than triangulation. However, much
nends on the length of line involved and the accuracy requirements.
AIIEDM equipment measures slope distance, which therefore needs to be reduced to the horizontal
at some datum level. This requires then not only the measurement of slope length, but also
the relative levels of the control points and instrument heights, or the measurement of vertical
angles.
EDM instruments are calibrated for the velocity of electromagnetic waves under certain standard
meteorological conditions. Thus actual meteorological conditions along the measured path need to
be known in order to correct the measured distance. At the present time this is not a practical
proposition and one has to be content with the measurement of temperature and pressure at each
end of the line being measured. For the best possible results under these conditions one equires
carciully calibrated thermnometers and barometers hung as high as possible by the instruments
read at the same instant of measurement, In order to comply with this latter requirement some form
of
intercommunication is necessary.
Dimtlar precautions are also required when measuring the vertical angles. In order to achieve the
Urcy required, one needs to use highly precise theodolites, preferably with automatic vertical
ie indexing. ldeally, simultancous reciprocal observations are necessary. If vertical
angles are
at only one end of the line, then corrections for curvature and refraction must be applied.
fding on the terrain and accuracy requirement, it may be necessary to consider the effect
deviation of the vertical' on the
twould appear, therefore, that not angles
but on only ismeasured.
trilateration possibly less economicalthan triangulation
consideration
kss accurate, There of the above error sources (Chrzanowski and Wilson, I967) it may also prove
HoKtdugersate as those
et al.
(1967) appears to be conflicting evidence on this point (Burke, 1971i), although
has shown conclusively that angles computed through a trilateration are as
A
further measured with a 1" theodolite on tthe same control net.
itäernalcheckche reaason why trilateration has not superseded triangulation must be in the superior
0gde check ven by triangulation. For instance, a triangle with three angles measured has an
tSOnlbservyed thehassinfourglwhereas
e
with three sides measured there is none; a braced quadrilateral with angles
conditions
(three angles, one side) to be satisfied, whereas with the sides there
ot\orochesksputed componentcondiangl tiones.
that the computed total angle at one corner equals the sum of the two
Neneckstwok desithegn nis therefore
on re especially critical in trilateration. In order to obtain sufficient redundancy
accuracy.
undancy
to be asa
the geometric figures become quite complicated. For instance, to obtain
triangulatexperts
tkagacion,calwithviealwpoil sidnestused.., measured
Indeed, ion braced quadrilateral, apentagon with all ten sides measured
in trilateration analysis have proposed the use of the
(20 giving 10 checks) as the basic network figure. However, from
field. Thus, Thy from pentagons
the and hexagons
with all stations intervisible are difficult to establish
t asebngeulahettiiloante.rnumber
? Howeveofr. redundant
logistic viewpoint, trilateration would require as much organization as
trilateration must include the measurement of somne of the angles, to
measurements. It follows from this that the modern practice is to
ed byeratthioen and rangulation, thereby producing very strong networks. The network may
metho of variation of coordinates or the following less rigorous approaches
288 Engineering Surveying
In the figures formed, use the reduced lengths to obtain the angles. This may be done
half-angle equation, i.e. using the
tan A/2 = (S(S -a/(S - bX(S - c)|)i
where 2S = (a + b+ c), the sum of the three sides
(6.16)
The network may then be treated as a triangulation network; the angles adjusted, the lenohe
computed from the adjusted angles and the point coordinates obtained from the length and beain
of each line.
Alternatively, direct coordination the points may be obtained. To find the coordinates of C.
given the coordinates of Aand B, and the length of the sides a, b, c of the triangle:

E, =}(E, +E¡) +2-b

22 (Ex - E,) - (N -N,) (6.17a)

and N, =}(,+N¡)+ 2c2 N, -N)+24 (E, - E) (6.17%)

where A, B and C are in clockwise order, and

A= (s(s - a)(s - b)X(s - c))i

If the survey is to be tied into the national grid, the local scale factor would need to be found
'provisional coordinates' and applied to the ellipsoidal lengths to give the grid lengths. 1ne
lengths are then used in the formula to give the grid coordinates. computation:
Dr. TL. Thomas (1971) offers the following alternative equations for trilateration
AE = Ep - EA AN = Ng-N d= AE+ AN?

p=
C
q=4N k= (b+e²-a') h= (b' -k?)
2c
Then E =E +pk- qh N, =N¡+ gk +ph
Checks a =(Eç- Eg + (Nç- N
B=(Ec-E,} +(Ne-N
It is assumed in the above that C is to the left of AB.

6.4 TRIANGULATERATION
lO
trilateration
and
As its narme implies,
triangulateration is simply the combining of triangulation advantag
produce a control system in which all the angles and checksfora
the brace
From the accuracy point of view, the sides measured.
are all
system should be very strong, possessing
of both systems from which it is
derived. The improvement in the redundancy
quadrilateral and central point pentagon are shown on the next page:
 Control surveys 289
Triangulation Trilateration Triangulateration
Quadrilateral
No. of directions 12 12
No. of sides 1 6
No, of checks
Pentagon
No. of directions 20 20
No. of sides 10
No. of checks 4

Vhit it is generally acknowledged that triangulateration is more accurate than the previously
nntcned systems, one must consider whether or not it is economically
eystem will certainly not be equal to the sum of the previous two justified.
The logistics of
methods,
eobservation station and targets/reflectors have been established on the
for once set up at
to be stations
led surveyor could acquire all the necessary field data with little extra time and effort.observed,
iectonic total stations' makes the prospect even more viable and may The use
zqial expenditure involved. Further, as justify the initial high
there would little or accumulation of scale and
ta COr, ill-conditioned figures could be utilized, thereby
De possible through pre-survey analysis to reducing the reconnaissance time.
ced not be occupied, thus
optimize the system so that every station in
k
containing dissimilar quantities further improving the viability. The adjustment of such a
presents no difficulty if computer facilities are available.
GIeddata laion of ot coordinates method. all the data can be adjusted en masse to
Lutus
coordinates f the network plus a produce the
complete error analysis and aposterior weighting of the
ieraionitheevianddentthisthatseems
t
triangulateration
to be
is to be
preferred lover the use of classical triangulation or
basic modern
practice. However, it is unlikely to supersede traversing
dif erence between the two systems and the accuracyleconomy factor.

3NERTIAL SURVEYING
e
nerial
urveying mostsystem (ISS) procedures.
iwreLnduite intcanervisibilitposy ibetiotwn-theefixningpoints, it can beItoperated
cons
it
ists
A

progr es at
provides three-dimensional positioning

speed the vehicle which it housed.

of
without any of the
is unaffected by atmospheric refraction, it
day or night regardless of weather
Vyeemnhehogoacceleration
nhoused
al axesbasiinbycalthlyree similarly in is
of an inertial platform with three accelerometers held in three
orientated precise gyroscopes (Figure 6.28).
àThe chang position in
a vehicle or
helicopter, and, commencing from a point of known
cOmponents in the direction of the axes are sampled at microscopic
PatTespect to time. from the starting
hinen thofe thesystem point is obtained by double integration of the
systeinmanis Earth-fixed
a computer which is used for monitoring and controlling the
yem is icoordinate system and computing relative position
tTorherethefore composeo of three accelerometers, three gyroscopes, computer,
control, storage and display of field data. The components measured
 290 Engineering Surveying
V-vertical axis

Naxis

Accelerometer,

Gyroscope-+

Eaxis

Inertial platform
Fig. 6.28 Schematic inertial
platform

by each of the three

accelerometers are accelerations and times, which, when procesSe
for errors, provide spatial
position.
6.5.1
Measurement acceleration
of
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. An acceleratic
producesa velocity of 4x 1=4 m/s over a l-s
dme, then in l s the incremental distance is 4interval: as velocity is rate or ceera
is
continually applied, so that at the
yl=4n This double numerical a
relative to the initial next survey position the distance components s
startingas the starting
coordinate system chosen point are known.
point, the axes are maintained
As thecoordinates parallel in
of the next point are k
by Accelerators measure the
acceleration canb
in the line of the accelerator. The principlecase is
considering
noving
a
pendulum
at a constant contained within a case (Figure 6.29). When the
position.Moven
velocity,
case to the right, in the the pendulum
direction of the sensitive ax1S, wouldincause
hangs avertically the pendulumtosw
its null
left. The detector senses the movement and sends signal to the torquing Systemto dire
() to the pendulum to keep it from swinging. The signal sent is directly proportionalto
exeried and can be amplified and measured. Then, knowing the force and massofthep
acceleration is
of accelerometerobtained
is referred
from to as a torque-rebalanced pendulus accelerometer". The
acceleration.

clectrical signal, when multipliedNewton'

by thes ttime interval, produces the Incrementalvelocily
first law that force equals mass X
c
dealtw
The
the initial
characteristics
final chapter. The of the gyros and
function of the their aPplication to direction orientatiol esistsro
are
accelerometers
P

Is to stabilize the triad ofthereforerest

allows
in three-dimensional
changesmeasurenent of gyroscopesS
coordinate system adopted. The system oftheaccel
lerlars
theesl

misaligned
in the
measur
by an angle
translation
ofement
from point to point. Misalignment
of acceleration. For
neterinlh CKC
the acceleromet
noorth
axis Pertica/se

E . the instance,COSit
but becomes
the
a, whilst orderto
also ay sin a. In
difference accel
the
eration due to vertical
in elevation. acceleration ag
becomnes
axis the acceleerometer
aE
not only
measures
Output in

gravity. This must be subtracted from the

 Control surveys 291
Case
Detector
system

Sensitive Axis

Pendulum

Torquing Force Acceleration

system

Fig. 6.29 Principle of the accelerator

6.5.2 Survey procedure

The frst step in the survey procedure is the calibration of the system. This largely comprises a
equence of tests controlled by the on-board computer. Gyro and accelerometer parameters are
lesled to see if they are within the specified ranges and are recorded for later use in data analysis.
Allappropriate components are monitored for operational stability. The process is repeated several
umes and may take up to two hours to complete.
e next step is the alignment of the accelerometer coordinate system to the geodetic coordinate
syslem to be used. This is referred as a local vertical or local north system. Throughout the
e,tie accelerometer system is rotated into the geodetic system by complex mechanical procedures
Tod
tesulting in bycoordinate
the computer.
errorsRegardless of surveyed.
of the points this, displacement fromother
In addition, the initial
errors orientation does occur,
affect the accelerations
Vebi nd steps must be taken to reduce their cumulative effect. This is done by stopping the
every 3-5 min and informing the computer that the vehicle has stopped and all three
velocity values should be zero. If they are not zero, the drift of each accelerometer and gyroscope
betthTecorded. These velocity errors may put into a Kalman filter and a new set of relations
wat een the errors and the system is calculated to enable corrections to be made to the position of
poin and all previous points. A Kalman filter is a series of mathematical models which
saisical y relates the different Sources of error to one another, and computes the most likely
tsimates for the corrections in real time. The overall procedure is called a 'zero velocity update'are
ZUPT.
Prefereered.) (IInf post I-processing is to be used then the raw data, without statistical filtering
differences
oavluines.ved AAare applied to the input coordinates of the starting point, to give real-time coordinate
this way, ne error effect is kept to a minimum and the coordinate

When theZUPT ISS takes lessa survey

than a minute to complete. station-marking
WOcGa,edturhee is initiated cd. The pprocedurepoint
reaches whose coordinate position is required, a
is similar to a ZUPT but in addition to the gyro and
accelerometer
S5 cann be
he
pMlISS.ationretheliarmlocated
ienaalsory logged
coordinates
of the point
over
are recorded. Also, as the point
of reference
measurements taken to relate the ISS
for the
the computer. Depending on the location of the survey point relative
Station point, the appropriate
MonAAofthtetWhahe tever
ho
din t bearing using a total
ISS meaofsturementS
be simple taped offsets or length and
may to an accuracy commensurate
with
method is used., the measurements must be
he completion
Ctvaion are Compared with system
the ISS traverse onto a known survey point, the computed
coordinates and
an appropriate adjustment
the known values and the difference used in
292 Engineering Surveying

or balancing procedure. The balancing may be carried out in

distance (Bowditch) or a combination of both. If proportion to
travel time or
analysis of the eror sources may enable a more post-processing
accurate
is
distribution of employed,
erors
a
more nig
throughva
traverse.
To ensure the best results, the following procedures should be adopted
()) Theroute between survey points should| be driven in astraight line and at au
This will optimize the Kalman filtering, as orientation uniform time Te:
rapid accelerations and bumpy roads.
errors would increase withr
routt cht
(2) ZUPTs must be performed every 3-5 min to
(3) The system must be recalibrated every 5-6 hours.
provide systems control.
(4) Known points should be included for
(5) All the known control points should bereference purposes every 1-2 hours.
(6) The traverse must close on a identified in advance to ensure easy access.
known point and the survey run back to the beginning
6.5.3 Accuracies and applications
At the present time accuracies in the region of 200 mm in plan and
100 mm in elevation tae
quoted. Thisaccuracy may be further enhanced by shortening the interval between LUrn
reoucing the total survey time to less than two hours. In such
10 mm or less have been cases, accuracies In u i
ISS provides a flexible obtained.
and accurate surveying system which can provide point positionng
high speeds. It is independent of weather conditions and so completely computerizedthuti
Virtually free from human error. The which m
one with sufficient ofproject
negative aspect
it viable only for the type of organization its very
ISS is Work to make it costWieffect
high cost,
the UK it has been have
used for road kilometres ofroad
inventory
surveyed in record time. It has been estimatedsurveys,
that thewhere
rate ofmany
point positioningis as muct
times quicker than
Irom and connect intoconventional methods. It shouldbe remembered than an with. aer
ISS surncy
system of points. knownanypoints. Hence the system must always be integrated
numberof
nointe
area might best beBasically, project Irequiring the fixing of alarge
carried out using ISS.
Worked examples ABCDER
Example 6.2. The Traverse
following table gives the coordinates of the sides of a

Side AN (m)
AE (m)
AB -138.26
B -76.35 -67.91
CD 145.12 109,82
D 20.,97 3I.73
E 187.06 77.36
-162.73 -25.24
-87.14
Is
cither apparent
BC or from these
EF. values occurred, and Is lelescope
angk
that
Explain the reasons for these
an
lacheometric error ol
readings were taken A statements.
from
JO m has

Vertical staffat D.
The
to