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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION

Question 1) What is Artificial Intelligence?

AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a great scope in future. AI
holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human. Artificial Intelligence is composed of two
words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking
power", hence AI means "a man-made thinking power."

So, we can define AI as:

"It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can behave like a
human, think like humans, and able to make decisions."

Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as learning,
reasoning, and solving problems.

With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do some work, despite that you
can create a machine with programmed algorithms which can work with own intelligence, and that is the
awesomeness of AI.

Question 2) Why Artificial Intelligence?

Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:

o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-world problems
very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana, Google
Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where survival
of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

Question 3) Goals of Artificial Intelligence

Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem
o Playing chess
o Plan some surgical operation
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o Driving a car in traffic

5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.

Question 4) What Comprises to Artificial Intelligence?

Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer
science even it's so vast and requires lots of other
factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first
we should know that how intelligence is composed, so
the Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which
is a combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-
solving perception, language understanding, etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software

Artificial Intelligence requires the following discipline:

o Mathematics
o Biology
o Psychology
o Sociology
o Computer Science
o Neurons Study
o Statistics

Question 5) Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and high
accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of that AI
systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action multiple times
with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a bomb,
exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as AI
technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as per
customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car which
can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural
language processing to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

Question 6) Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

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Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for Artificial intelligence. Being so
advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind while
creating an AI system.

Following are the disadvantages of AI:

o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots of
maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they cannot
work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or
programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not
have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may
sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are getting more
dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but still AI
machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and imaginative.

Question 7) List out the Applications of AI

Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming essential for today's time
because it can solve complex problems with an efficient way in multiple industries, such as Healthcare,
entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life more comfortable and fast.

Following are some sectors which have the application

of Artificial Intelligence:

1. AI in Astronomy

o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to

solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding
the universe such as how it works, origin, etc.

2. AI in Healthcare

o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming

more advantageous for the healthcare
industry and going to have a significant
impact on this industry.
o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can
help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that medical help
can reach to the patient before hospitalization.
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3. AI in Gaming

o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like chess, where
the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.

4. AI in Finance

o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine
learning into financial processes.

5. AI in Data Security

o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very rapidly in the
digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure. Some examples such as
AEG bot, AI2 Platform,are used to determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.

6. AI in Social Media

o Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user profiles, which
need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and manage massive
amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the latest trends, hashtag, and
requirement of different users.

7. AI in Travel & Transport

o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various travel related
works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights, and best routes
to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots which can make human-like
interaction with customers for better and fast response.

8. AI in Automotive Industry

o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for better
performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make your
journey more safe and secure.

9. AI in Robotics:

o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are programmed
such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, we can create intelligent
robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences without pre-programmed.
o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid robot
named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave like humans.
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10. AI in Entertainment

o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some entertainment
services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show the
recommendations for programs or shows.

11. AI in Agriculture

o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best result.
Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field. Agriculture is
applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive analysis. AI in agriculture
can be very helpful for farmers.

12. AI in E-commerce

o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more

demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products
with recommended size, color, or even brand.

13. AI in education:

o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant.
o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be accessible easily
at any time and any place.

Question 8) Explain the History of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not
a new technology for researchers. This
technology is much older than you would
imagine. Even there are the myths of
Mechanical men in Ancient Greek and Egyptian
Myths. Following are some milestones in the
history of AI which defines the journey from the
AI generation to till date development.

Maturation of Artificial Intelligence

(1943-1952)

o Year 1943: The first work which is now

recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943.
They proposed a model of artificial
neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb
demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection strength between neurons. His rule is now
called Hebbian learning.
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o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine learning in 1950.
Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in which he proposed a test. The test can
check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing
test.

The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)

o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial intelligence program" Which
was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved 38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new
and more elegant proofs for some theorems.
o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer scientist John McCarthy at
the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were invented. And the enthusiasm for
AI was very high at that time.

The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)

o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve mathematical problems.
Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as WABOT-1.

The first AI winter (1974-1980)

o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter refers to the time period
where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding from government for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.

A boom of AI (1980-1987)

o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert systems were programmed
that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial Intelligence was held
at Stanford University.

The second AI winter (1987-1993)

o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost but not efficient
result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.

The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)

o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary Kasparov, and became the
first computer to beat a world chess champion.
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o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum cleaner.
o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook, Twitter, and Netflix
also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to solve the complex
questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could understand natural language and can solve
tricky questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was able to provide
information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two master debaters and also
performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and which had taken
hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice that she was talking with the machine.

Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and data science are now
trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and Amazon are working with AI and
creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.

Question 9) Types of Artificial Intelligence:

Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main categorization which are
based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI.

Following is flow diagram which explain the types of AI.

AI type-1: Based on Capabilities

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1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:

o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence.The most common and
currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one specific task. Hence it is
also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined range of functions.
o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system approach combined
with Machine learning and natural language processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce site, self-driving cars, speech
recognition, and image recognition.

2. General AI:
o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with efficiency like a human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think like a human by its
own.
o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can perform any task as
perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and time to develop such
systems.

3. Super AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human intelligence, and can
perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an outcome of general AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to reason,solve the
puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.
o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such systems in real is still
world changing task.
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Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars can store recent speed
of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other information to navigate the road.

3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to interact socially
like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of efforts and improvement
for developing such AI machines.

4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super intelligent, and will have
their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.
o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.
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Question 10) Types of AI Agents

Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and capability. All these
agents can improve their performance and generate better action over the time. These are given below:

o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent
o Goal-based agents
o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent

1. Simple Reflex agent:

o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on the basis of the current
percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable
environment.
o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of
percepts history during their decision and action process.
o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule,
which means it maps the current state to action. Such as a
Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in the
room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:
o They have very limited intelligence
o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual
parts of the current state
o Mostly too big to generate and to store.
o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

2. Model-based reflex agent

o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable

environment, and track the situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:
o Model: It is knowledge about "how things
happen in the world," so it is called a Model-
based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the
current state based on percept history.
o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the
world" and based on the model they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:
a. How the world evolves
b. How the agent's action affects the world.
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3. Goal-based agents

o The knowledge of the current state environment is

not always sufficient to decide for an agent to what
to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes
desirable situations.
o Goal-based
based agents expand the capabilities of the
model-based
sed agent by having the "goal"
information.
o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the
goal.
o These agents may have to consider a long sequence
of possible actions before deciding whether the goal
is achieved or not. Such considerations of differen
differentt scenario are called searching and planning, which makes
an agent proactive.

4. Utility-based agents

o These agents are similar to the goal

goal-based agent but
provide an extra component of utility measurement
which makes them different by providing a measure of
success at a given state.
o Utility-based
based agent act based not only goals but also
the best way to achieve the goal.
o The Utility-based
based agent is useful when there are
multiple possible alternatives, and an agent has to
choose in order to perform the best ac
action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to
check how efficiently each action achieves the goals.

5. Learning Agents

o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can

learn from its past experiences, or it has learning
capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act
and adapt automatically through learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual
components, which are:
a. Learning element: It is responsible for making
improvements by learning from environmen
environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from
critic which describes that how well the agent is
doing with respect to a fixed performance
standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible
esponsible for suggesting actions that will lead to new and
informative experiences.
Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways to improve the
performance.
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Question 10) Explain w what are Agents,, Intelligent Agents,

Agents Rational
Agents,, Rationality and Structure of an AI Agent in Artificial Intelligence?
An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment. The agents sense the
environment through sensors and act on their environment throu
through
gh actuators. An AI agent can have mental
properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.

Agent:
An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through sensors and act upon that environment through
actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting.

An agent can be:

o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for sensors and hand, legs,
vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for sensors and various motors
for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input and act on those inputs
and display output on the screen.

Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera, and even we are also agents.

Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and actuators.

4.2M

Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the information to other electronic
devices.
evices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The actuators are only
responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an electric motor, ge
gears,
ars, rails, etc.

Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms, fingers, wings,
fins, and display screen.
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Intelligent Agent:
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors and actuators for
achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their goals. A thermostat is an
example of an intelligent agent.

Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:

o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.
o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.
o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.

Rational Agent:
A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way to maximize its
performance measure with all possible actions.

A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to use for game theory and
decision theory for various real-world scenarios.

For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement learning algorithm, for each best
possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for each wrong action, an agent gets a negative reward.

Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged on the basis of
following points:

o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
o The sequence of percepts.

Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows the actual outcome of its action and act
accordingly, which is not possible in reality.

Structure of an AI Agent:
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The structure of an intelligent
agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:

Agent = Architecture + Agent program

Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:

Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.

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Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.

f: P* → A

Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program executes on the physical
architecture to produce function f.

Question 11) Explain PEAS representation model of an AI Agent?

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we de define
fine an AI agent or rational agent, then we can group its
properties under PEAS representation model. It is made up of four words:
o P: Performance measure
o E: Environment
o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors

Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.

PEAS for self-driving cars:

Let's suppose a self-driving

driving car then PEAS representation will be:
Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.

Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Performance measure Environment Actuators Sensors

1. Medical o Healthy patient o Patient o Tests Keyboard

Diagnose o Minimized cost o Hospital o Treatments (Entry of symptoms)
o Staff

2. Vacuum o Cleanness o Room o Wheels o Camera

Cleaner o Efficiency o Table o Brushes o Dirt
o Battery life o Wood floor o Vacuum detection
o Security o Carpet Extractor sensor
o Various o Cliff sensor
obstacles o Bump Sensor
o Infrared Wall
Sensor

3. Part - o Percentage of o Conveyor belt o Jointed Arms o Camera

picking parts in correct with parts, o Hand o Joint angle
Robot bins. o Bins sensors.
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Question 12) Explain Agent Environment in AI

An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of an agent itself. An
environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.

The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to sense and act upon it. An
environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.

Features of Environment
As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view of an agent:

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable

2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point of time then it is a
fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state to keep track history
of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called as unobservable.

2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:

o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of the environment,
then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by an agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about uncertainty.

3. Episodic vs Sequential:

o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current percept is required for
the action.
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o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to determine the next best
actions.

4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an environment is called
single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is called a multi-
agent environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single agent environment.

5. Static vs Dynamic:

o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such environment is called a
dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue looking at the world while
deciding for an action.
o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each action.
o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are an example of a static
environment.

6. Discrete vs Continuous:

o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be performed within it, then
such an environment is called a discrete environment else it is called continuous environment.
o A chess game comes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves that can be
performed.
o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.

7. Known vs Unknown

o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's state of knowledge to
perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in unknown environment,
agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an Unknown environment to be
fully observable.

8. Accessible vs In-accessible

o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment, then such an
environment is called an Accessible environment else it is called inaccessible.
o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an accessible environment.
o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
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Turing Test in AI
In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think like a human or not, this test is known as
the Turing Test. In this test, Turing proposed that the computer can be said to be an intelligent if it can mimic human
response under specific conditions.

Turing Test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper, "Computing Machinery and Intelligence," which considered
the question, "Can Machine think?"

The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game,"

with some modifications. This game involves three players
in which one player is Computer, another player is human
responder, and the third player is a human Interrogator,
who is isolated from other two players and his job is to
find that which player is machine among two of them.

Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and

Player C is an interrogator. Interrogator is aware that one
of them is machine, but he needs to identify this on the
basis of questions and their responses.

The conversation between all players is via keyboard and screen so the result would not depend on the machine's
ability to convert words as speech.

The test result does not depend on each correct answer, but only how closely its responses like a human answer. The
computer is permitted to do everything possible to force a wrong identification by the interrogator.

The questions and answers can be like:

Interrogator: Are you a computer?

PlayerA (Computer): No

Interrogator: Multiply two large numbers such as (256896489*456725896)

Player A: Long pause and give the wrong answer.

In this game, if an interrogator would not be able to identify which is a machine and which is human, then the
computer passes the test successfully, and the machine is said to be intelligent and can think like a human.

"In 1991, the New York businessman Hugh Loebner announces the prize competition, offering a $100,000 prize for
the first computer to pass the Turing test. However, no AI program to till date, come close to passing an undiluted
Turing test".
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Chatbots to attempt the Turing test:

ELIZA: ELIZA was a Natural language processing computer program created by Joseph Weizenbaum. It was created
to demonstrate the ability of communication between machine and humans. It was one of the first chatterbots, which
has attempted the Turing Test.

Parry: Parry was a chatterbot created by Kenneth Colby in 1972. Parry was designed to simulate a person
with Paranoid schizophrenia(most common chronic mental disorder). Parry was described as "ELIZA with attitude."
Parry was tested using a variation of the Turing Test in the early 1970s.

Eugene Goostman: Eugene Goostman was a chatbot developed in Saint Petersburg in 2001. This bot has competed
in the various number of Turing Test. In June 2012, at an event, Goostman won the competition promoted as largest-
ever Turing test content, in which it has convinced 29% of judges that it was a human.Goostman resembled as a 13-
year old virtual boy.

The Chinese Room Argument:

There were many philosophers who really disagreed with the complete concept of Artificial Intelligence. The most
famous argument in this list was "Chinese Room."

In the year 1980, John Searle presented "Chinese Room" thought experiment, in his paper "Mind, Brains, and
Program," which was against the validity of Turing's Test. According to his argument, "Programming a computer
may make it to understand a language, but it will not produce a real understanding of language or
consciousness in a computer."

He argued that Machine such as ELIZA and Parry could easily pass the Turing test by manipulating keywords and
symbol, but they had no real understanding of language. So it cannot be described as "thinking" capability of a
machine such as a human.

Features required for a machine to pass the Turing test:

o Natural language processing: NLP is required to communicate with Interrogator in general human
language like English.
o Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information during the test.
o Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored information for answering the questions.
o Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect generalized patterns.
o Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator actions and other objects during a test.
o Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if requested.