ELASTICITY

Stress and Strain:

When a body is subjected to deforming force, a restoring force is developed in the body. The restoring
force per unit area is known as stress. This restoring force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
applied force.
 If F is the force applied and A is the area of cross section of the body, then Stress=F/A.
 The SI unit of stress is Nm-2 or pascal (Pa) and its dimensional formula is [ML-1T-2].

The ratio of change in dimension of a body to the original dimension is called strain. Strain has no
units or dimensions.

 There are three types of stress and strain.

1) Longitudinal stress: If a force is applied normal to the

cross section of the body, then the restoring force
developed per unit area is called longitudinal stress.
Longitudinal stress may be of two types i.e. tensile stress
or compressive stress i.e. it can cause either extension
(tensile stress) or compression (compressive stress)
depending on the direction. In both cases, there is change
in length of the body.

Longitudinal strain: The ratio of change in the length

(∆l) to the original length (L) of the body is known as
longitudinal strain.
∆
i.e. Longitudinal 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎i𝑛 =

2) Shearing Stress: If a deforming force is applied parallel to the surface area of the body, there
is relativedisplacement between opposite faces. The restoring force per unit area developed
due to applied tangential force is known as tangential or shearing stress.
 Shearing strain: As a result of applied tangential force,
there is relative displacement ∆𝑥 between opposite faces
of the body as shown is figure. The strain so produced is
known as shearing strain.

Shearing strain is defined as the ratio of relative

displacement of the faces ∆x to the height ‘h’.

∆
i.e. Shearing strain = 𝑡𝑎𝑛θ =

where θ is the angular displacement of the surface from the vertical (original position). Usually
θ is very small and hence tanθ ≈ θ.

3) Normal stress or Bulk stress: If a force acts in

perpendicular direction at each point of the surface then
restoring force per unit area is called bulk stress or
normal stress. In this case, only volume of the body
changes without any change of its shape. Volumetric strain
or Bulk strain: It is defined as the change in volume (∆V)
to the original volume (V), without any change in shape.
∆
i.e. 𝑉o𝑙𝑢𝑚e𝑡𝑟𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎i𝑛 =

 Hooke’s Law: It states that Stress is directly proportional to strain within elastic limit.

i.e. Stress α Strain (or) = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

 The ratio of stress to strain is called the modulus of elasticity or elastic constant. It is a
characteristic property ofthe material.
1. Young’s Modulus (Y): It is defined as the ratio of longitudinal (linear) stress to
longitudinal strain with in the elastic limit.

‘F’ represents the force applied normal to the area ‘A ‘of a wire of length ‘ L’ and ‘∆l’ is the change
in length.

 Since strain is dimensionless quantity, the unit of Young’s Modulus is the same as that of stress
i.e. Nm-2.
 For metals like iron, steel, copper, aluminium etc., the Young’s moduli are very large.
Therefore, these materials require a large force to produce small change in length.

2. Rigidity modulus (n): The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding shearing strain is called
the shear modulus or Rigidity modulus of the material.
𝑭
𝑨
𝒏= Nm-2
𝜽
‘F’ is the tangential force and ‘θ’ is the shear strain.

3. Bulk Modulus (K): It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to volumetric strain with in the
elastic limit.

𝑭
𝑨
𝑲= ∆𝒗 Nm-2
𝑽

(F/A) is the normal stress and ∆v is the change in volume and V is the original volume.
  Poisson’s ratio (σ): It is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain.
𝜎= β /𝑎

‘𝑎’ is increase in length per unit length per unit stress in the direction of the stress and β is decrease
in length per unit length per unit stress in a direction perpendicular to the stress.
‘β’ is lateral strain per unit stress and ‘α’ is the longitudinal strain per unit stress.

 Torsion of a Cylinder:
Consider a cylinder of length ‘L’ and radius ‘R’. Let the cylinder be clamped at the upper end a
twisting couple be applied at the lower end. Let θ be the angle of twist.

R
O
O

L
R O θ

x
O θ
B’
B
The cylinder can be considered as made up of a number of co-axial hollow cylinders of varying radii
(0 to R). At the bottom end, each of these radii are twisted through an angle, θ due to the applied
external couple. As a result, OB is displaced to OB’ and OP is displaced to OP’ without change
in dimensions.

A line AB parallel to OO’ is displaced to AB’ through an angle φ

called the angle of shear. This is an example of pure shear as there is no change in either length
or radius of the cylinder.
We can calculate the twisting couple on the co-axial cylinder of radius OB (OB = x) and
integrate the expression between the limits, x=0 and x=R to obtain the magnitude of the twisting
couple on the cylinder. We can write from the geometry of the figure,
𝐵𝐵 = 𝑥 𝜃 = 𝐿𝜑
Or, 𝜑 = 𝑥 𝜃⁄𝐿 ---------------(i)

If δ F is the tangential force acting on a cylindrical shell of radius , ‘x’ and thickness, ‘ dx ‘,
then
The tangential stress = δF /area of the shell = δF /2πx dx --------(ii)
The rigidity modulus = tangential stress / shear strain
n = (δF /2πx dx) /𝜑 ------(iii)
δF = 2𝜋 n x dx. 𝜑 ---------(iv)
Twisting couple on the hollow cylinder of radius ‘x’ and thickness, ‘dx’ can be written as
δC = tangential force × distance = n. φ. 2πx dx. x ----------(v)
n , is the rigidity modulus of the material and is given by the ratio of tangential stress to shear strain.
Substitute for φ in eqn. (v) to obtain
𝜹𝑪 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒏 𝜽 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 . 𝒙⁄𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒏𝜽 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙⁄𝑳 -------------------------------(vi)
Twisting couple on the solid cylinder of radius ‘R’ ,

2πnθ 2πnθ
C= x dx = [R ⁄4]
L L
𝛑𝐧𝐑𝟒 𝛉
𝐂=
𝟐𝐋
  Torsion Pendulum:
A rigid wire of length’ L’ and radius ‘r’ is fixed at one end and forms the L
axis of rotation for a regular or an irregular body attached to the free end. When the
wire is twisted at the free end, the body is set into oscillations and these oscillations
are called torsional oscillations.
Let I be the moment of inertia of the body about the given axis and T be the time
period for torsional oscillations. Let the restoring couple per unit twist be ‘C’ and ‘θ’
be the angle of twist.
𝒅𝟐 𝜽
𝑰 = −𝑪 𝜽
𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝑪
+ 𝜽=𝟎 represents the simple harmonic equation for torsional
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝑰

oscillations. From the above equation, we can get the time period for torsional oscillations
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 𝑰⁄𝑪
𝑰 𝑪 𝝅𝒏𝒓𝟒 𝜽
Or, = where 𝑪 =
𝑻𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝟐𝑳

For a given wire, C is constant and hence the ratio I/T 2 is constant irrespective of the body or
the axis of rotation. This principle is used to determine the moment of inertia of irregular objects.

 Bending Moment of a Beam:

A beam is a structural member whose length is very large compared to other dimensions. In
the simple theory of bending of beams, the shear stresses are neglected and only tensile or compressive
stresses are considered.

W
Consider a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other end.
Due to the applied force, a force of reaction is set up at the fixed end of the beam. These two equal
and opposite forces constitute a couple which tends to rotate the beam. Since the beam is elastic a restoring
couple is set up to bring the beam back to equilibrium.
The beam can be imagined as made up of a number of longitudinal filaments. Under the applied
load the upper filaments will undergo extensions and assume a convex form and the lower filaments will
undergo compressions and assume a concave form. The filament that does not undergo any change in
dimension is the neutral axis. The magnitude of extension or compression will depend on the distance
of the filament from the neutral axis.

“Moment of the restoring couple is called bending moment of the beam”.

 Expression for the bending moment of a beam:

Let ABCD be a section of the beam. EF is the neutral axis. Under the action of the external couple,
the section will bend into an arc without any change in length of neutral axis. The upper filaments will
undergo extension and lower filaments will be subjected to compressive stresses.

The beam is bent into an arc of a circle of radius ‘R’ with the center at C. Consider a small portion of the
neutral axis, PQ , subtending an angle θ at the center. P’Q’ is another small portion of another filament
which is at a distance of ‘x’ from the neutral axis.
In the absence of bending, PQ = P’Q’
PQ = R θ , and P’Q’ = (R+x) θ
Strain in the filament, P’Q’ = {(R+x)θ – R θ} /Rθ = x / R
If δA is the area of the filament (P’Q’), which is at a distance ‘x’ from the neutral axis and Y is the
Youngs modulus, then
𝜹𝑭⁄𝜹𝑨
𝒀=
𝒙⁄𝑹
Force acting on the filament, δF = 𝑌 𝑥 𝛿𝐴⁄𝑅 and
Moment of the force about neutral axis = (𝒀 𝒙 𝜹𝑨⁄𝑹). 𝒙
The bending moment of the beam is obtained by summing over the moments of all the filaments above
and below the neutral axis.
𝒀 𝒀
Bending Moment = ∑ 𝜹𝑨 𝒙𝟐 = ∑ 𝜹𝑨𝒙𝟐 =𝒀𝑰𝒈 ⁄𝑹
𝑹 𝑹

𝑰𝒈 = ∑ 𝜹𝑨 𝒙𝟐 = 𝑨 𝒌𝟐 is the geometrical moment of inertia and depends on the area of cross section,
‘A’ of the beam and the radius of gyration k of the area about the neutral axis.

 For rectangular cross section , 𝑰𝒈 = 𝒃 𝒅𝟑 /𝟏𝟐 , b is the breadth and d is the thickness.
 For circular cross section, 𝑰𝒈 = 𝝅 𝒓𝟒 /𝟒 , r is the radius
 Expression for Young’s Modulus of Single cantilever:

A cantilever is a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other end. Consider a load ‘W’ applied
to the free end of the cantilever of length, ‘l ’. Let δ be the deflection of the free end of the cantilever
under the load. The deflection is maximum at the free end and is equal to zero at the fixed end.
Let PQ = dx ,be a small section of the neutral axis AB.

Let PQ = dx , be a small section of the neutral axis AB. PQ is at a distance x from the fixed end.
Radius of curvature of neutral axis =R. Deflection of PQ =dy

The radius of curvature of the neutral axis is given by the standard expression,

⁄
= ⁄

Here, (dy/dx) is very small and therefore higher powers of it can be neglected.
2
𝑑 𝑦
∴ ≃ 𝑑𝑥2
The moment of applied force acting on the element PQ = W( l-x) ------(ii)
The restoring couple due to the elasticity of the beam =𝑌𝐼 ⁄𝑅 ---------(iii)
At equilibrium, these two are equal and opposite.
 ∴ 𝑌𝐼 ⁄𝑅 = W(l-x)

i.e. 𝑌𝐼 = 𝑊( 𝑙 − 𝑥)

On integration, we get

𝑌𝐼 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑤 ∫(𝑙 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑌𝐼 = 𝑤(𝑙𝑥 − 𝑥 /2) + 𝐶 where ‘C’ is the constant of integration.

The deflection is zero at x= 0 and dy/dx =0. Substituting this condition, we get C = 0.

Again on integration, we get

𝑌𝐼 ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑤 ∫ 𝑙𝑥 − 𝑑𝑥

𝑌𝐼 𝛿 = 𝑤 − = 𝑤 − =

𝛿= ---------(v)

For a beam of rectangular cross section, 𝐼 = 𝑏 𝑑 /12 . Substituting this we obtain,

𝛿=

∴ Young’s Modulus of the cantilever is given by,

𝟒𝐌𝐠𝐥𝟑
𝐘= where w=Mg
𝐛𝐝𝟑 𝛅