MODULE 2 (Continuation……)

CONTROL TECHNIQUES FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) SYSTEMS

Photovoltaic (PV) systems are complex, and their performance depends on various environmental
and operational factors. To maximize the efficiency, reliability, and safety of PV systems, several
control techniques are applied at different levels, including power optimization, grid integration,
energy storage management, fault detection, and protection. Below is a detailed explanation of the
key control techniques used in modern PV systems:

1. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

To ensure the PV system operates at its maximum power point (MPP), which varies with
environmental factors like sunlight intensity and temperature.

 The relationship between voltage and power for a PV panel is nonlinear, meaning there is a
particular voltage and current combination that yields the maximum power for any given light
intensity and temperature.
 MPPT algorithms continuously adjust the operating point of the PV system to track the MPP and
extract the maximum possible power.

MPPT Techniques:
1. Perturb and Observe (P&O):

Operation: The P&O method perturbs the voltage (or current) and observes the resulting change in power.
If power increases, the perturbation direction is maintained; if it decreases, the direction is reversed.

Advantage: Simple to implement and widely used.

Disadvantage: May oscillate around the MPP, especially under rapidly changing environmental
conditions.
1. If the power increases (ΔP>0):

 This means the perturbation is moving the system toward the Maximum Power Point
(MPP).
 Therefore, the algorithm continues to perturb the voltage in the same direction (i.e.,
continue increasing or decreasing the voltage, depending on the current trend).

2. If the power decreases (ΔP<0):

 This means the perturbation is moving the system away from the MPP.
 Therefore, the algorithm reverses the direction of the voltage perturbation in the next
iteration (i.e., if the voltage was increased, it will now be decreased, or vice versa).

2. Incremental Conductance :

The core idea behind the Incremental Conductance method is to compare the rate of change of the
panel's voltage and current to predict the direction in which the operating point should move to
reach the MPP.

Instantaneous Conductance G is the inverse of voltage: the change in conductance (ΔG) over
time is compared to the change in voltage (ΔV) to predict the direction of the MPP.

Incremental Conductance (dI/dV): The method focuses on the relationship between the
incremental changes in current and voltage. The algorithm uses the following condition for
tracking the MPP:

𝑑𝑝
If the rate of change of power with respect to voltage is zero, the system is at the MPP
𝑑𝑣

In terms of the incremental conductance:

o Operation: This method compares the incremental conductance (dI/dV) with the instantaneous
conductance (I/V). When the two are equal, the system is at MPP.
 2. Inverter Control

Inverters play a crucial role in converting the DC power from the PV panels to AC power for the
grid or local loads. Proper control is needed for optimal performance and grid compatibility.

a.Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):

o Operation: PWM controls the inverter’s output voltage by modulating the duty cycle of
the switches. By adjusting the duty cycle, the inverter can control the output frequency and
voltage.
o Advantages: Efficient conversion with minimal harmonic distortion.
o Disadvantages: Requires high-frequency switching, which can cause losses.

b.Voltage and Current Control:

o Operation: Voltage and current loops in the inverter control the voltage and current
outputs to match the grid requirements. The voltage loop adjusts the modulation index,
while the current loop ensures that the output current is sinusoidal and in phase with the
grid.
o Advantages: Ensures high-quality power output.
o Disadvantages: Complexity in tuning the controllers for different operating conditions.

c.Grid Synchronization (Phase-Locked Loop - PLL):

 o Operation: The inverter uses PLL algorithms to synchronize its output with the grid's
phase, frequency, and voltage.
o Advantages: Ensures seamless integration with the grid.
o Disadvantages: PLL may have a delay in tracking frequency changes during disturbances.

d.Power Factor Control:

o Operation: Inverters can adjust the phase of the output current to supply or absorb reactive
power from the grid, thus maintaining a power factor close to 1.
o Advantages: Improves grid stability and reduces losses.
o Disadvantages: May require complex control algorithms in some cases.

3.Power Quality Control

To achieve power quality according to specifications, control structures for inverters in PV systems
must adopt harmonic compensation algorithms. IEEE Std 519 recommends a harmonic distortion
of less than 5%. Harmonics are due to non-linear behaviour of elements connected to the power
grid that produce undesired phenomena in both grid and connected loads. In order to attenuate
these effects, control actions are implemented reducing the currents harmonics injected to the grid.
The simplest strategy is to use passive filters designed for the frequencies to be eliminated.

 Reactive power compensation

 Harmonic mitigation

4.Fault Detection and Protection

To ensure the safety and longevity of the PV system by detecting faults and protecting components
from damage.

1. Overcurrent Protection:
o Operation: Detects if the current exceeds safe limits (e.g., due to a short circuit or
overload) and disconnects the affected part of the system.
2. Ground Fault Detection:
o Operation: Detects faults caused by leakage currents to the ground, which can occur due
to wiring issues, moisture, or aging components.
3. Arc Fault Detection:
o Operation: Detects arc faults that can occur due to damaged or loose connections in the
system.
4. Overvoltage Protection:
o Operation: Ensures that the system does not exceed voltage limits, which could damage
inverters or other components.
GRID-CONNECTED MODE FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEMS

A grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) system, also known as an on-grid solar system, is
one that is directly connected to the utility grid. This type of system allows you to generate
electricity from solar panels and either consume it onsite or send excess electricity to the grid. It
operates in conjunction with the local power utility, allowing for two-way energy flow: electricity
flows from the PV system to the grid when there is surplus, and the system can draw power from
the grid when the solar output is insufficient (e.g., at night or on cloudy days).

Components of a Grid-Connected Solar PV System

1. Photovoltaic (PV) Panels:

o Function: These panels convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity.
2. Inverter:
o Function: Converts the DC electricity produced by the PV panels into alternating
current (AC) electricity, which is required for household appliances and is compatible
with the utility grid.
o Grid Synchronization: The inverter must synchronize its output with the grid's voltage,
frequency, and phase to ensure that power can flow seamlessly between the PV system
and the utility grid.
o Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT): Inverters use MPPT technology to ensure
that the PV system operates at its maximum efficiency, adjusting the operating point of
the panels to optimize the power output based on environmental conditions (e.g.,
temperature, sunlight intensity).
3. Metering System (Bi-directional Meter):
o Function: Measures both the electricity consumed from the grid and the excess
electricity exported to the grid.
o Net Metering: Many grid-connected systems benefit from a net metering arrangement,
which credits the customer for the electricity sent to the grid. In this case, when the PV
system generates more power than the home or business uses, the excess power is fed
into the grid, and the customer receives credit for it. When the solar system isn't
producing enough electricity (such as during the night), power is drawn from the grid.
Advantages of Grid-Connected Solar PV Systems

1. Lower Energy Costs

2. No Need for Batteries
3. Environmental Benefits
4. Reliability
5. Grid Stability and Ancillary Services

Disadvantages of Grid-Connected Solar PV Systems

1. Dependency on the Grid

2. Regulatory and Policy Changes
3. Limited Control Over Energy Supply
4. Grid Stability Concerns

ISLANDED MODE OF OPERATION FOR SOLAR PV SYSTEMS (OFF-

GRID)

An islanded mode, also known as off-grid mode, refers to the operation of a solar photovoltaic
(PV) system where it operates independently of the utility grid. In this mode, the PV system must
supply all the energy needed to meet the load, including providing energy during periods when the
solar panels are not generating power (e.g., during the night or cloudy days). This mode is typically
used in remote areas, islands, or regions where grid connection is either unavailable or unreliable.
Solar Energy Generation:

During the day, sunlight is absorbed by the PV panels, generating DC electricity. This electricity is used in
two ways:

 Powering Loads: It can be used directly to power the connected appliances or devices.
 Charging the Batteries: Any excess energy not used by the loads is directed to charge the
batteries for use when the solar energy is not available (at night or on cloudy days).

1. Energy Storage:
o The excess DC electricity from the PV panels is stored in batteries. The batteries
are charged by the charge controller to ensure proper charging cycles and to protect
the batteries from overcharging.
o Batteries provide the energy buffer for periods without sunlight. The system must
be sized with enough battery capacity to meet the load requirements during these
times, taking into account typical daily and seasonal variations in solar energy
availability.
2. Power Conversion and Distribution:
o When the energy stored in the batteries is required (e.g., at night), the inverter
converts the DC power from the batteries back to AC power, which is then used to
supply the loads.
o The inverter also adjusts the voltage and frequency of the AC output to maintain a
stable power supply for the connected appliances.
3. Energy Management:
o The Energy Management System (EMS) monitors the system’s performance,
balancing the power produced by the solar panels, stored in the batteries, and
consumed by the load. It ensures that critical loads are powered during low
generation periods and that the batteries are kept within their optimal charge range.
o Load Shedding: In some cases, non-essential loads can be disconnected (or "shed")
when battery levels are low, ensuring that the most critical loads (e.g., lighting,
refrigeration) are maintained.

The two types of islanding modes are:

1. Intentional Islanding

Intentional islanding refers to a situation where the solar PV system is deliberately isolated from
the grid to operate independently, typically during planned events. In this case, the disconnection
from the utility grid is performed intentionally by the system's design or the operator, often to
ensure continuity of power supply to the local load or to provide energy to critical infrastructure
during a grid failure.
Conditions for intentional islanding mode:

1. Planned Disconnection

2. Operation during Grid Failure

3. System Control

4. Safety

2. Unintentional Islanding

Unintentional islanding occurs when the solar PV system continues to supply power to a load even
after the grid has been disconnected, without the system's operators intending it to do so. This can
happen unexpectedly and is generally a hazardous situation because it poses significant safety risks
to utility workers and the grid infrastructure.

In this case, the PV system inadvertently continues to operate in isolation from the grid, without
proper synchronization or control, creating a situation where the power generated by the solar
system feeds into the grid or to local loads without the utility’s knowledge.

Common Causes of Unintentional Islanding:

 Grid Failure
 Utility Maintenance
 Improper System Design or Settings

Advantages of Islanded (Off-Grid) Solar PV Systems

1. Independence from the Grid

2. Clean, Renewable Energy
3. Flexibility and Autonomy
4. Remote Power Supply

Disadvantages of Islanded (Off-Grid) Solar PV Systems

1. High Initial Cost

2. Battery Maintenance and Replacement
3. System Sizing and Design Complexity
4. Limited Power During Low Solar Generation
GRID SYNCHRONIZATION

The grid synchronization process in a solar PV system refers to the steps taken by the inverter to
match its output to the voltage, frequency, and phase of the utility grid. This is essential for safely
and efficiently feeding power from the photovoltaic system to the grid without causing
disturbances or damage. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of how grid synchronization works:

1. Monitoring Grid Parameters

Voltage: The inverter constantly monitors the voltage of the utility grid. It ensures that the grid
voltage is within a specified range and that it has the correct amplitude and waveform shape.

Frequency: The inverter checks the grid’s frequency (either 50 Hz or 60 Hz, depending on the
region). The inverter adjusts its own output frequency to match the grid frequency.

Phase: The inverter measures the phase angle of the grid's AC voltage to ensure that it aligns with
the inverter’s output phase.

2. Pre-Synchronization Checks: Before attempting synchronization, the inverter ensures that grid
Voltage, frequency and phase Angle should match with inputs of utility grid.

If these conditions are not met, the inverter will wait and periodically check again before
attempting synchronization.

3. Phase-Locked Loop (PLL)

The Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is the core mechanism used by the inverter to synchronize its
output with the grid.

The PLL tracks the phase of the grid’s AC waveform. The inverter continuously compares the
grid’s phase angle with its own and adjusts its output to align with the grid phase.

4. Voltage Regulation

The inverter adjusts the voltage of its output to match the grid voltage. This involves controlling
the DC-to-AC conversion process and adjusting the amplitude of the AC output signal.

The inverter uses techniques such as voltage feedback control to ensure that the output voltage is
in phase and of the correct magnitude relative to the grid voltage.

5. Current Control

The inverter typically uses a current controller to ensure that the injected current is synchronized
with the grid’s AC waveform.
6. Anti-Islanding Protection

If the grid experiences a fault or disconnection, the inverter is equipped with anti-islanding
protection to detect this condition.

In the event of an islanding scenario (where the inverter continues to feed power into a portion of
the grid that is disconnected), the inverter will immediately disconnect to protect both the PV
system and the utility grid.
PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL)
A Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) is an electronic control system used to synchronize an output signal
(e.g., from an inverter) with a reference signal, typically the voltage or frequency of the utility
grid. In a solar PV system, a PLL is used to ensure that the AC output from the inverter is
synchronized with the grid's AC voltage. This is important for grid integration and efficient
operation.

Role of PLL in Grid-Connected Solar PV Systems

In grid-connected solar PV systems, one of the primary challenges is ensuring that the solar
inverter can feed power into the grid without causing any instability or phase difference. The PLL
helps in this synchronization in the following ways:

a. Synchronizing Inverter Output to Grid Frequency and Phase

Grid Frequency Tracking: The grid typically operates at a fixed frequency (e.g., 50 Hz or 60 Hz
depending on the region). The PLL ensures that the inverter output remains in sync with the grid
frequency, avoiding mismatches that could lead to instability, power surges, or disconnection.

b.Phase Matching: Besides frequency, the phase of the inverter’s output must match the grid's
phase. The PLL ensures that the inverter’s voltage waveform is in phase with the grid’s voltage
waveform. This is critical for the efficient transfer of power from the solar system to the grid.

c. Frequency and Phase Detection for MPPT Control

The PLL is also used in conjunction with Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms.
The PV inverter uses the PLL to detect the grid’s frequency and phase, which helps in adjusting
the operation of the inverter to maximize the power output from the solar array. This is particularly
important during transient conditions like cloud cover, when the solar radiation may change
rapidly.

3. Working of PLL in Solar PV Systems

Step 1: Detection of the Grid Voltage

The inverter receives the grid voltage signal (typically the AC voltage waveform) through sensors
or a measurement system.

Step 2: Phase and Frequency Comparison

The PLL compares the phase of the detected grid voltage with the inverter’s output voltage. It
checks for any phase difference and adjusts the output accordingly.
Step 3: Error Signal Generation

If there’s any difference in phase or frequency between the grid and the inverter, the phase detector
in the PLL generates an error signal that quantifies the mismatch.

Step 4: Phase Adjustment via VCO

The error signal is used to control the Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO), which adjusts the
output frequency and phase of the inverter. The VCO essentially "locks" the inverter’s frequency
and phase to that of the grid.

Step 5: Filtering the Error Signal

A low-pass filter smooth’s the error signal to remove high-frequency noise. This helps in providing
a stable control signal to the VCO.

Step 6: Continuous Synchronization

The PLL continuously monitors and adjusts the phase and frequency of the inverter output to
maintain synchronization with the grid. This is important because grid conditions are dynamic,
and the PLL ensures that the inverter is always in phase with the grid.

Advantages of Using PLL in Solar PV Systems

Grid Stability: By ensuring that the inverter output is synchronized with the grid, PLL helps in
maintaining the overall stability and reliability of the power grid.

Improved Power Transfer: With proper phase alignment, the inverter can inject power into the
grid more efficiently, minimizing losses and improving power quality.

Reduced Harmonics: By maintaining a proper phase relationship, the PLL helps in reducing
harmonic distortions, which could otherwise interfere with grid operation.

Disadvantages

While PLLs offer a lot of benefits, there are also some challenges and considerations in their use
in solar PV systems:

Dynamic Grid Conditions: In areas with poor grid quality or unstable frequency, PLLs may
struggle to maintain synchronization, leading to potential instability or disconnection from the
grid.

Slow Response to Grid Frequency Changes: In the case of sudden changes in grid frequency
(e.g., due to grid faults), the PLL may take some time to adjust, which could temporarily affect
performance.

Complexity: Implementing a PLL in a solar inverter requires additional hardware and software,
adding to the complexity of the system.
BATTERY CHARGING SYSTEM
In a photovoltaic (PV) system, the process of battery charging is crucial for storing solar energy
so that it can be used when sunlight is not available, such as at night or during cloudy days.

Components Involved in Battery Charging:

1. Photovoltaic Panels: These convert sunlight into electrical energy (DC power). The amount
of energy generated depends on the number of panels, their efficiency, and the amount of
sunlight available.

Solar Array: The combined group of panels is called a solar array. The more panels in the array,
the greater the amount of DC electricity generated.

2. Charge Controller: Regulates the voltage and current from the PV array to ensure that the
batteries are charged properly and safely. It limits the amount of current that goes into the
battery bank, ensuring it doesn't exceed the battery's maximum charge rate.

Types of Charge Controllers:

a. PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) Controllers: These are simpler and less expensive than MPPT
controllers. They adjust the voltage of the solar panel array to match the battery bank's voltage,
ensuring safe charging. However, they are less efficient, especially when the difference
between the panel output voltage and battery voltage is large.

b. MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) Controllers: MPPT controllers are more efficient
than PWM controllers because they optimize the power extraction from the solar panels by
adjusting the panel's operating voltage to the maximum power point.

3. Battery: Stores the energy generated by the PV panels for later use. The energy stored in the
battery can then be used when there is no sunlight. The battery’s capacity, measured in amp-
hours (Ah) or kilowatt-hours (kWh), determines how much energy can be stored.

Types of Batteries:

Lead-Acid Batteries: These are the most common and less expensive option. However, they have
a shorter lifespan and require more maintenance.

Flooded Lead-Acid (FLA): Requires periodic water refilling and ventilation due to gas
production.
Sealed Lead-Acid (SLA): Includes AGM (Absorbent Glass Mat) and Gel types, which are
maintenance-free and don’t vent gases.

Lithium-Ion Batteries: These have become the preferred option due to their longer lifespan, faster
charging, higher efficiency, and deeper discharge capabilities. They require a Battery Management
System (BMS) to ensure safe operation.

4. Inverter (optional in off-grid systems): Converts DC power from the batteries into AC power
for use in household appliances. It converts the DC power stored in the battery bank into AC
power that can be used by household devices.

Grid-Tied Systems: In grid-tied systems, the inverter also synchronizes the DC power from the
solar panels with the AC grid, allowing for net metering or feeding excess solar energy back into
the grid.

5. Battery Management System (BMS): A Battery Management System (BMS) is typically

used with Lithium-Ion batteries to monitor and manage the health and performance of the
battery bank. The BMS performs several functions:

Voltage Regulation: Ensures that each cell in the battery bank is charged and discharged within
safe voltage limits.

Temperature Monitoring: Protects the battery from overheating, which can reduce lifespan or
cause failure.

State of Charge (SOC): Monitors how much charge remains in the battery, so the system can adjust
charging and discharging cycles.

Balance Cells: In large battery banks with multiple cells, a BMS ensures all cells are balanced,
meaning they are charged and discharged at the same rate, improving performance and longevity.

Charging Process

Energy Harvesting: The PV panels generate DC electricity from sunlight. The energy is fed into
the charge controller.

Voltage Adjustment and Regulation: The charge controller adjusts the voltage from the solar
panels to match the battery’s needs and starts the charging process.

Battery Charging: The charge controller follows the correct charging cycle (bulk, absorption, float,
or equalization) to safely charge the battery bank.

Energy Storage: The battery stores the energy, ensuring that power is available when needed, even
when there’s no sunlight.

Energy Discharge: When energy is needed, the inverter (if installed) converts the stored DC power
into AC power for household use.
MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking)

MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking) for a photovoltaic (PV) system is a technique used
to optimize the power output of a solar panel or array by continuously adjusting the electrical
operating point to ensure the system is operating at its Maximum Power Point (MPP). The MPP
is the point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve of the solar panel where the product of voltage and
current (power) is at its highest value.

The power output of a solar panel is highly dependent on external factors such as:

 Solar Irradiance (sunlight intensity)

 Temperature
 Shading conditions

As these factors change throughout the day, the MPP also changes. Without an MPPT system, the
solar panel may operate at a suboptimal point, resulting in less energy being harvested from the
solar array.

1. Measure Voltage and Current: The MPPT controller measures the voltage and current
coming from the solar array.
2. Determine Power: It calculates the power output (P = V × I, where V is the voltage and I
is the current).
3. Compare to Previous Power: The controller compares the current power output with the
previous power output to determine if the operating point needs to be adjusted.
4. Adjust Voltage: If the current power is higher than the previous one, the controller slightly
adjusts the operating voltage (by increasing or decreasing) to keep moving toward the
maximum power point. If the power is decreasing, it reverses the direction of voltage
adjustment.
5. Find and Lock to MPP: This adjustment process continues, fine-tuning the system until
the Maximum Power Point is reached, where the power output is maximized for the given
environmental conditions.
MPPT is typically implemented in solar inverters—the device that converts DC power from the
solar panels into AC power for use in the grid or in homes. Some advanced inverters are equipped
with multiple MPPT channels, allowing different parts of the solar array to be optimized
independently if they are exposed to different levels of sunlight (e.g., due to shading or roof
orientation).

Importance of MPPT:

 Improved Energy Harvesting: Without MPPT, solar systems can operate at less-than-
optimal points due to varying sunlight and temperature conditions. MPPT ensures the
system is always working at its most efficient point.
 Adaptation to Changing Conditions: As the sun moves across the sky, or clouds pass,
the amount of sunlight reaching the panels can change rapidly. MPPT algorithms adapt to
these changes to keep the panel at its maximum power point.
 Increased System Efficiency: By ensuring the PV array operates at the MPP, MPPT
significantly increases the overall efficiency of the solar system, leading to greater energy
production.

MPPT Methods:

There are several common techniques used for implementing MPPT in PV systems, including:

1. Perturb and Observe (P&O): Adjusts the voltage slightly and checks whether the power
increases or decreases, continuing to adjust until the MPP is found.
2. Incremental Conductance (IncCond): Uses the derivative of power with respect to
voltage to find the point where the slope is zero, indicating the MPP.
PERTURB & OBSERVE MPPT

The basic idea of Perturb and Observe (P&O) is to periodically adjust the operating voltage of
the solar panel to find the voltage and current that correspond to the maximum power. It works by
perturbing (slightly changing) the voltage and observing the effect on the power output.

 If the power increases when the voltage is perturbed, we continue to perturb in the same
direction.
 If the power decreases when the voltage is perturbed, we reverse the direction of
perturbation.

This process is repeated continually, and over time, the algorithm converges to the point where the
system operates at the MPP.

Steps of P&O MPPT Algorithm:

1. Measure Voltage and Current: The solar panel’s voltage and current are measured
continuously. From these values, the power can be calculated as:

P=V×I

where P is power,V is voltage, and I is current.

2. Perturb the Voltage: A small change (ΔV) is applied to the voltage. This change is
typically small to avoid large fluctuations in the system and ensure stability.
3. Observe Power Change: After applying the perturbation, the new power (Pnew ) is
compared with the previous power (Pold):
o If Pnew > Pold , the power has increased, so the direction of voltage change is correct.
o If Pnew < Pold, the power has decreased, so the direction of voltage change was
incorrect, and the voltage should be perturbed in the opposite direction.
 4. Update Voltage: Based on the observation, the voltage is adjusted either by increasing or
decreasing the perturbation.
5. Continue the Process: Repeat the perturbation and observation cycle continuously. Over
time, the system should converge to the voltage at which the solar panel generates the
maximum power.

4. Advantages of P&O MPPT:

 Simplicity: The P&O method is easy to implement, requiring only basic measurement and
control of voltage and power.
 Low Computational Requirements: It doesn’t require complex mathematical modeling
or real-time calculations, making it suitable for microcontroller-based systems.
 Widely Used: It’s one of the most popular algorithms for MPPT in small and large-scale
photovoltaic systems.
5. Disadvantages of P&O MPPT:

 Oscillations Around MPP: While the system will generally converge to the MPP, the
operating point may oscillate around the maximum power point, especially in rapidly
changing environmental conditions (like fluctuating sunlight).
o In steady conditions, P&O will work well.
o In dynamic conditions (e.g., passing clouds or sudden changes in sunlight), the
algorithm may cause small oscillations around the MPP, leading to less than
optimal performance.
 Slower Response to Rapid Changes: P&O takes some time to detect changes in
environmental conditions. If the solar irradiance changes rapidly, the system might not
track the maximum power quickly enough.
INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE MPPT

To determine the terminal voltage of the PV module by measuring and comparing the incremental
and instantaneous conductance of the PV module. If it is observed that the incremental
conductance is equal to the instantaneous conductance, it indicates that the maximum power
point is found. It has been observed that within operating limits, output power increases with
increasing terminal voltage of the PV module (slope of the power curve is positive,
dP/dV >0). On the contrary, at operating points past MPP there is a decrease in the output power
with an increase in terminal voltage of the PV modules (the slope of the power curve is negative,
dP/dV <0). When the operating point is exactly at the MPP, the slope of the curve as expected is
zero. These observations are graphically represented as

From the concepts of differential equations, it follows that

During MPP scenario, as observed from above figure dP/dV = 0. Thus the expression (1) can be
rearranged as follows,
Instantaneous Conductance (G) is the inverse of voltage.

𝐼
G=𝑉

Incremental Conductance (ΔG) The method focuses on the relationship between the incremental
changes in current and voltage. The algorithm uses the following condition for tracking the MPP:

ΔG = dI/dv

Comparison of Conductance: The instantaneous conductance is compared with the incremental

conductance:

 If G>ΔG , the operating point is shifted in the positive voltage direction (increase voltage)
to increase power.

 If G<ΔG, the operating point is shifted in the negative voltage direction (decrease voltage)
to increase power.

 If G=ΔG, the system is at the maximum power point (MPP), and no adjustment is made.