 Express the estimation process of solar radiation.

Estimating solar radiation involves considering solar geometry, atmospheric conditions, and
surface characteristics. Models like Angstrom-Prescott or Hargreaves-Samani equations predict
clear sky radiation based on extra-terrestrial radiation and atmospheric transmissivity. Bird-
Hulstrom or Perez models refine estimates by accounting for atmospheric attenuation. Surface
albedo, terrain, and orientation further adjust radiation predictions. Validation against measured
data ensures accuracy across diverse locations and conditions. Integration with meteorological
data provides comprehensive information for applications. Uncertainty assessment quantifies
reliability, considering model inputs and limitations. Overall, solar radiation estimation integrates
diverse factors through empirical models and data analysis techniques.

 How does an MPPT know when the maximum power point has been reached?

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a critical function in solar photovoltaic (PV) systems,
optimizing the power output by continuously adjusting the operating point of the PV array to track
the Maximum Power Point (MPP) under changing environmental conditions. MPPT controllers
employ various techniques to detect when the MPP has been reached:-

Perturb and Observe (P&O): This method involves continuously perturbing the operating point of
the PV system (voltage or current) and observing the change in power output. When the power
output begins to decrease after an increment or decrement in operating point, it indicates that the
MPP has been surpassed.

Incremental Conductance (IncCond): Unlike P&O, the Incremental Conductance method

calculates the derivative of the power-voltage (P-V) curve. When the derivative is zero, it indicates
that the system is at the MPP. This method is more efficient than P&O, especially under dynamic
weather conditions.

Hill Climbing: This algorithm continuously compares the instantaneous power output with the
power output at the previous iteration. If the power output increases, the controller continues to
adjust the operating point in that direction until further adjustment results in a decrease in power
output.

Model-Based Methods: Some advanced MPPT algorithms utilize mathematical models of the PV
system to predict the MPP. These models consider factors such as temperature, irradiance, and
the characteristics of the PV array to estimate the optimal operating point.

 Explain the converter control.

Converter control in wind energy refers to managing power electronic converters to optimize
energy conversion, grid integration, and turbine performance. It involves techniques like Maximum
Power Point Tracking (MPPT), voltage and frequency regulation, and active/reactive power
control. By adjusting converter parameters, such as voltage, frequency, and switching patterns,
converters ensure efficient energy capture, grid stability, and compliance with grid codes. Effective
converter control is crucial for maximizing energy yield, minimizing grid disturbances, and
facilitating seamless integration of wind power into the electrical grid. This involves adjusting
converter parameters based on grid conditions and operator commands to maintain. The control
techniques can vary depending on the specific type of converter (e.g., buck, boost, buck-boost,
inverter) and the application requirements. The choice of control algorithm depends on factors
such as system dynamics, performance requirements, and computational resources.
 What is hybrid and isolated operation of PV system and wind system?

Hybrid Operation Isolated operation

In hybrid operation, PV systems and wind Isolated operation refers to the standalone
systems are combined to form a single operation of PV systems or wind systems
integrated system. This integration allows in locations where grid connection is
both solar and wind energy resources, unavailable or impractical, such as remote
maximizing energy production and system areas, off-grid cabins, or mobile
reliability applications.

Hybrid systems often include a hybrid In isolated operation, the PV system or

controller that coordinates the operation of wind system functions independently of the
both PV and wind components to ensure grid, providing electricity directly to local
efficient energy conversion and storage. loads or stored in batteries for later use.

During periods of low solar irradiance, the These systems often incorporate energy
wind turbines can continue to generate storage solutions, such as batteries, to
electricity, and vice versa, providing a more store excess energy generated during
consistent energy output compared to periods of high solar or wind availability for
standalone PV or wind systems. use during periods of low generation.

Hybrid systems are commonly used in grid- Isolated operation requires careful sizing
connected applications, where the and design to match energy supply with
generated electricity can be fed into the demand, consider variations in weather
grid or used to offset. conditions and load.

 Explain the working principle of Doubly-fed induction generator.

The DFIG consists of a 3-phase wound rotor and a 3-phase wound stator. The rotor is fed with a 3
phase AC signal which induces an ac current in the rotor windings. As the wind turbines rotate,
they exert mechanical force on the rotor, causing it to rotate. As the rotor rotates the magnetic field
produced due to the ac current also rotates at a speed proportional to the frequency of the ac
signal applied to the rotor windings. As a result, a constantly rotating magnetic flux passes through
the stator windings which cause induction of ac current in the stator winding. Thus, the speed of
rotation of the stator magnetic field depends on the rotor speed as well as the frequency of the ac
current fed to the rotor windings.

The basic requirement for the electricity generation using wind energy is to produce a signal of
constant frequency irrespective of the wind speed. In other words, the frequency of the ac signal
generated across the stator should be constant irrespective of the rotor speed variations. To
achieve this, the frequency of ac signal applied to the rotor windings need to be adjusted.

The whole system consists of two back to back converters – a machine side converter and a grid
side converter, connected in the feedback loop of the system. The machine side converter is used
to control the active and reactive powers by controlling the d-q components of the rotor and also
torque and speed of the machine. The grid side converter is used to maintain a constant dc link
voltage and ensures the unity power factor operation by making the reactive power drawn from the
utility grid to zero. A capacitor is connected between the two converters such that it acts as an
energy storage unit.
 How does a solar-wind hybrid system work?

The working principle of a solar-wind hybrid system revolves around integrating the energy
generation capabilities of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and wind turbines to harness renewable
energy resources efficiently. Here's a breakdown of the working principle:

Energy Generation:-Solar PV panels convert sunlight into electricity through the photovoltaic
effect. They generate direct current (DC) electricity when exposed to sunlight. Wind turbines
capture the kinetic energy from the wind, which rotates the turbine blades. The rotational motion
drives a generator, producing alternating current (AC) electricity.

Integration:-Both solar panels and wind turbines are connected to a common electrical system,
often through inverters. Inverters convert the DC electricity from the solar panels into AC electricity
to match the grid or load requirements. The AC electricity generated by both solar and wind
sources is combined in the electrical system to provide a continuous and stable power supply.

Load Consumption and Storage:-The electricity generated by the hybrid system can be used to
power electrical loads directly or stored in batteries for later use. Charge controllers regulate the
charging and discharging of batteries to ensure optimal battery health and performance. They
prevent overcharging or deep discharging of the batteries, which can degrade battery lifespan.

Control and Monitoring:- Hybrid systems incorporate control and monitoring systems to manage
the operation of the components and optimize energy generation and storage. Maximum Power
Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithms are often used to maximize the energy harvested from both
solar and wind sources. These algorithms adjust the operating points of the solar panels and wind
turbines to track the maximum power output under varying environmental conditions. Monitoring
systems provide real-time data on energy generation, battery state of charge, and system
performance. This allows for remote monitoring, troubleshooting, and maintenance.

Backup Generation:- Some hybrid systems include a backup generator, such as a diesel
generator, to provide additional power during periods of low solar and wind availability or when the
battery bank is depleted. The backup generator is typically integrated into the system with
automatic start-up and shut-down controls to ensure seamless operation when needed.

 State & Explain Solar energy collectors.

Solar energy collectors are devices designed to harness sunlight and convert it into usable thermal
or electrical energy. They are essential components of solar energy systems, serving as the
interface between sunlight and the desired energy output. Solar collectors come in various types,
each optimized for specific applications.

Solar thermal collectors capture sunlight and convert it into thermal energy. They typically consist
of a dark-coloured absorber plate, a transparent cover (such as glass), and insulation to minimize
heat loss. Fluid, such as water or a heat transfer fluid, circulates through the collector, absorbing
heat from the sun and transferring it to a storage tank or directly into a building's heating system.
Common types of solar thermal collectors include flat-plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors,
and concentrating collectors.

Solar photovoltaic (PV) collectors, on the other hand, convert sunlight directly into electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. They are made up of multiple solar cells, usually composed of
semiconductor materials such as silicon. When sunlight strikes the solar cells, it excites electrons,
generating an electric current. Solar PV collectors are used in a wide range of applications.
 What is wind speed statistics probability distribution?

The wind speed probability distribution is a statistical representation of the likelihood of different
wind speeds occurring at a specific location over a given period of time. Understanding this
distribution is crucial for various applications, including renewable energy resource assessment,
building design, and environmental impact studies. Several probability distributions are commonly
used to model wind speed-

Weibull Distribution: One of the most widely used distributions for modelling wind speed data. It is
characterized by two parameters: shape (k) and scale (c). The Weibull distribution can closely
approximate the actual wind speed distribution and is flexible enough to accommodate a wide
range of wind conditions.

Log-Normal Distribution: This distribution is characterized by a logarithmic transformation of wind

speed data, where the logarithm of wind speed follows a normal distribution. It is suitable for
modelling wind speed data that exhibit log-normal behaviour, such as in certain atmospheric
conditions or geographical regions.

Exponential Distribution: Often used to model extreme wind speed events or gusts. It describes
the probability of the time between occurrences of wind speed events and is characterized by a
single parameter: the rate parameter (λ).
Rayleigh Distribution: This distribution is commonly applied in cases where the wind speeds are
influenced by turbulent conditions or flow over a flat, open terrain. It is a special case of the
Weibull distribution with a shape parameter of 2.

 Discuss different solar photovoltaic technologies in detail.

Monocrystalline Silicon (Mono-Si): Monocrystalline silicon solar cells are made from high-purity
silicon. They have a single crystal structure, which gives them a uniform appearance and high
efficiency. Mono-Si cells typically have higher efficiency rates compared to other types, making
them space-efficient but also relatively expensive to produce.

Polycrystalline Silicon (Poly-Si): Polycrystalline silicon solar cells are made from silicon crystals
that are melted together. They have a less uniform appearance compared to monocrystalline cells
and are slightly less efficient. However, poly-Si cells are cheaper to manufacture, making them a
cost-effective option for many applications.

Thin-Film Solar Cells: Thin-film solar cells are made by depositing one or more thin layers of
photovoltaic material onto a substrate, such as glass or metal. The most common types of thin-film
solar cells include amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper indium gallium
selenide (CIGS). Thin-film solar cells are less efficient than crystalline silicon cells but offer
advantages such as flexibility, lightweight, and lower manufacturing costs.

Perovskite Solar Cells: Perovskite solar cells are a relatively new type of solar cell that has gained
attention for its high efficiency potential and low-cost manufacturing. Perovskite materials have a
unique crystal structure that allows for efficient light absorption and charge transport. While still in
the research and development stage, perovskite solar cells have shown rapid improvements in
efficiency and stability.

Bifacial Solar Cells: Bifacial solar cells can generate electricity from both the front and back sides
of the solar panel, capturing sunlight that is reflected from the ground or surrounding surfaces.
This technology increases the overall energy yield of the solar panel and is particularly beneficial.
 Determine the relationship between wind speed and power?

The relationship between wind speed and power in a wind turbine can be described by a power
curve. Wind turbines have an optimal range of wind speeds at which they operate most efficiently,
typically between the cut-in speed and the rated speed. Beyond the rated speed, the turbine
reaches its maximum power output, after which it enters a region of decreased power production
due to overspeed protection mechanisms.

The power coefficient (Cp) is a dimensionless parameter that varies with the design and
characteristics of the wind turbine. It represents the fraction of the kinetic energy of the wind that
the turbine is able to capture and convert into electrical power.

The power curve of a wind turbine graphically represents the relationship between wind speed and
power output. It typically shows the power output of the turbine as a function of wind speed,
starting from the cut-in speed, increasing to the rated speed, and eventually levelling off or
decreasing beyond the cut-out speed.

Understanding the relationship between wind speed and power is essential for optimizing the
performance and efficiency of wind energy systems and for accurate energy production estimation
in wind resource assessments.

 A 50-kW wind turbine operates at peak efficiency when the wind blows at 26 miles per hour.
At this rate, it reaches 62% of the Betz limit. What is the coefficient of power for this wind
turbine?

 Wind Turbine = 50Kw

 Wind Velocity = 26 mph
 Peak Efficiency = 62% of betz Limit = 0.62 PMax
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Coefficient of power= x 0.62
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡
8
0.62 𝑥 𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑖 3
= 1
27(9𝑐)
𝑒𝐴𝑉𝑖 3
2(9𝑐)
16
 = 0.62 x 27
 = 0.62 x 0.59
 = 0.3658
 = 37%
 What are the types of wind mills?

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT): Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) are a type of wind
turbine where the main rotor shaft and electrical generator are positioned horizontally, parallel to
the ground. These turbines have blades attached to a central hub, and they rotate around a
horizontal axis.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT): Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs) are a type of wind
turbine where the main rotor shaft is positioned vertically, perpendicular to the ground. VAWTs
have blades that rotate around a vertical axis. This vertical orientation allows VAWTs to capture
wind from any direction.

Hybrid Wind Turbines: These turbines combine features of both horizontal and vertical axis
designs to capitalize on the strengths of each type. For example, some hybrid designs use vertical
axis turbines for low wind speeds and horizontal axis turbines for higher wind speeds.

Offshore Wind Turbines: These turbines are specifically designed for installation in offshore
environments, where wind resources tend to be stronger and more consistent. They are typically
larger and more robust than onshore turbines to withstand harsh marine conditions.

Floating Wind Turbines: Floating turbines are designed to operate in deep water where fixed-
bottom structures are not feasible. They are anchored to the seabed using mooring lines and can
be deployed further offshore where wind resources are abundant.

Micro Wind Turbines: These turbines are small-scale versions of conventional wind turbines and
are often used for residential or small commercial applications. They are designed to generate
electricity for localized.

 What are the applications of Wind energy?

Electricity Generation: Wind turbines are primarily used to generate electricity. Wind farms, both
onshore and offshore, consist of multiple turbines connected to the electrical grid. They provide a
renewable source of electricity for residential, commercial, and industrial use.

Water Pumping: Wind pumps, also known as windmills, have been traditionally used for pumping
water from wells or reservoirs in rural areas. These pumps are particularly useful in remote
locations where grid electricity is unavailable or unreliable.

Water Desalination: Wind energy can power desalination plants that convert seawater or brackish
water into potable water. Wind-driven reverse osmosis systems are increasingly being used in
coastal regions to address water scarcity issues.

Agricultural Applications: Wind energy can be harnessed for various agricultural purposes,
including crop drying, irrigation, and livestock watering. Wind pumps and aerators are commonly
used in agriculture to improve water management and enhance productivity.

Off-Grid Power: In remote or off-grid areas, standalone wind energy systems can provide reliable
electricity for lighting, communication, refrigeration, and other essential services. These systems
often incorporate battery storage to ensure continuous power supply when wind speeds are low.

Hybrid Systems: Wind energy can be integrated with other renewable energy sources, such as
solar and hydroelectric power, to form hybrid energy systems. These systems leverage the
complementary nature of different energy sources to improve overall reliability and efficiency.
 Write down advantages and disadvantages of solar PV system.

Advantages:

Renewable Energy Source: Solar PV systems harness sunlight, which is a renewable and
abundant energy source. As long as the sun shines, solar energy can be captured and converted
into electricity.

Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Solar PV systems produce electricity without emitting
greenhouse gases or other pollutants, helping to mitigate climate change and reduce air pollution.

Low Operating Costs: Once installed, solar PV systems have minimal operating costs since
sunlight is free. This makes solar energy economically competitive with conventional energy
sources, especially as technology costs continue to decline.

Low Maintenance Requirements: Solar PV systems have few moving parts and require minimal
maintenance compared to other energy generation technologies. Routine cleaning and occasional
inspection are typically all that's needed to ensure optimal performance.

Energy Independence: By generating their own electricity from sunlight, solar PV system owners
can reduce their reliance on grid-supplied electricity, providing greater energy independence and
resilience, particularly in remote or off-grid locations.

Disadvantages:

Intermittency and Variability: Solar PV systems generate electricity only when exposed to sunlight,
making them intermittent and variable energy sources. Energy storage systems or backup power
sources are often needed to ensure a reliable electricity supply, especially during periods of low
sunlight.

High Initial Costs: While the cost of solar PV technology has decreased significantly in recent
years, the initial investment for installing a solar PV system can still be relatively high. However, the
long-term economic benefits often outweigh the upfront costs, especially with available incentives
and financing options.

Land Use and Space Requirements: Large-scale solar PV installations can require significant land
area or rooftop space, which may compete with other land uses or raise concerns about visual
impact and land development.

 What type of magnets is used in wind turbines?

Permanent magnets are commonly used in various components of wind turbines, particularly in the
generator. The most widely used type of permanent magnet in wind turbines is neodymium-iron-
boron (NdFeB) magnets. These magnets are known for their high magnetic strength and are
essential for efficient electricity generation in direct-drive and gearless wind turbine designs.

In direct-drive wind turbines, the rotor of the turbine is directly connected to the generator without
the need for a gearbox. NdFeB magnets are often used in the rotor of the generator to create a
strong magnetic field, which interacts with the stator coils to induce electricity generation.

In addition to NdFeB magnets, other types of permanent magnets, such as samarium-cobalt

(SmCo) magnets and ferrite (ceramic) magnets, may also be used in wind turbines, depending on
the specific application and design requirements. However, NdFeB magnets are preferred in many.
 Discuss the power electronic converters used in wind energy conversion.

Power electronic converters play a crucial role in the conversion and transmission of electrical
energy in wind energy systems. These converters facilitate the efficient integration of wind turbines
with the electrical grid, enabling effective control, power quality management, and grid stability

AC/DC Converters: At the heart of a wind turbine's power conversion system is the AC/DC
converter, also known as the rectifier. It converts the variable-frequency alternating current (AC)
generated by the wind turbine's generator into direct current (DC) suitable for further processing.

DC/AC Converters (Inverters): The DC output from the rectifier is then fed into the DC/AC
converter, or inverter, which converts the DC power into grid-compatible alternating current (AC).
Inverters are essential for synchronizing the output of individual wind turbines with the grid
frequency and voltage.

Voltage Source Converters (VSCs): Voltage source converters are increasingly used in modern
wind energy systems, especially in offshore installations and large-scale wind farms. VSCs offer
advanced control capabilities, enabling precise regulation of active and reactive power flow, as
well as voltage and frequency control. They are often employed in high-voltage direct current
(HVDC) transmission systems for long-distance power transmission.

Current Source Converters (CSCs): While less common than VSCs, current source converters are
still utilized in some wind energy applications. CSCs operate by controlling the current flowing into
the grid, providing advantages such as inherent short-circuit protection and the ability to handle
grid faults more effectively.

Grid-Side Converters: In addition to converters located within the wind turbine, grid-side
converters are employed at the point of grid connection to regulate the flow of power between the
wind farm and the electrical grid. These converters ensure grid stability, power quality compliance,
and seamless integration of wind energy into the existing grid infrastructure.

 Discuss the wind power statistics in India and global scenario.

Wind power has emerged as a pivotal player in the global quest for renewable energy, offering a
sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. In the global arena, the wind energy sector has witnessed
exponential growth, with installed capacity reaching approximately 733 gigawatts (GW) by 2020,
according to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).

India, with its expansive coastline and substantial onshore wind potential, has emerged as a key
player in the global wind energy landscape. As of 2020, India's installed wind power capacity stood
at over 38 GW, making it the fourth-largest wind power market globally. The Indian government
has implemented various initiatives to promote wind energy, including incentives, subsidies, and
streamlined approval processes.

China has taken the lead in wind power installation, followed closely by the United States,
Germany, India, and Spain. These countries have invested significantly in wind energy
infrastructure, leveraging their vast wind resources to boost their renewable energy portfolios.
Notably, offshore wind power has gained prominence in regions like Europe, with the UK,
Germany, and Denmark spearheading large-scale projects. Asia, North America, and Latin
America, have also made significant strides. In India, wind power has emerged as a key contributor
to the country's renewable energy portfolio. As of 2020, India had an installed wind power capacity.
 Discuss the procedure of estimating the solar energy availability.

Estimating solar energy availability involves assessing the amount of sunlight that reaches a
particular location over a given period. This process typically involves several steps:

Data Collection: The first step is to gather relevant data, including geographical information such as
latitude, longitude, and altitude of the location where solar energy availability is being estimated.
Additionally, historical weather data, including solar irradiance levels, temperature, cloud cover, and
atmospheric conditions, are collected from local meteorological stations or databases.

Solar Irradiance Analysis: Solar irradiance, often measured in watts per square meter (W/m²), is the
amount of solar energy received at a specific location on the Earth's surface. Analysing historical
solar irradiance data helps to understand the typical solar energy patterns at the location. This data
may also be supplemented with satellite-derived solar irradiance data for a more comprehensive
analysis.

Modelling Solar Radiation: Various mathematical models, such as the Solar Radiation Model (SRM)
or the Heliosat-2 method, are used to estimate solar radiation levels based on factors like latitude,
longitude, altitude, time of day, time of year, and local weather conditions. These models consider
the angle of incidence of sunlight, atmospheric effects, and shading from nearby objects or terrain.

Shading Analysis: Assessing potential shading from nearby buildings, trees, or other obstructions is
crucial for accurately estimating solar energy availability. Shading analysis tools, including shade
analysis software or sun path diagrams, help identify areas of potential shading and estimate their
impact on solar energy generation.

System Performance Analysis: Once solar energy availability is estimated, it's essential to analyse
the performance of solar energy systems, such as photovoltaic (PV) panels or solar thermal
collectors, under the estimated solar radiation levels. This analysis helps predict the energy output
of solar systems and optimize.

 A wind turbine travels with the speed is 10 m/s and has a blade length of 20 m. Determine
wind power.

Given:

Wind speed v =10 m/s,

Blade length l = 20 m,

air density ρ = 1.23 kg/m3,

area , A = πr2

= π × 400

= 1256 m2

The wind power formula is given as,

P = 1/2ρAV3

= 0.5 × 1.23 × 1256 × 1000

P = 772440 W.
 What is solar pond? Explain the main applications of solar pond?

A solar pond is a man-made structure designed to collect and store solar energy for various
applications, particularly for heating water or generating electricity. It consists of a large body of
water with different layers of salinity, creating a natural thermal gradient that allows for the
collection and storage of solar energy.

The main applications of solar ponds include:

Thermal Energy Storage: Solar ponds are primarily used for thermal energy storage, particularly
for heating water or other fluids for various industrial, agricultural, or residential purposes. The
stored heat can be utilized for space heating, water heating, industrial processes, or desalination.

Electricity Generation: Solar ponds can also be used to generate electricity through the utilization
of thermoelectric or thermodynamic systems. By exploiting the temperature difference between the
warm surface water and the cooler bottom layer, heat engines such as Organic Rankine Cycle
(ORC) or Kalina cycle systems can convert thermal energy into mechanical power, which can then
be used to drive generators and produce electricity.

Desalination: In regions where freshwater resources are scarce, solar ponds can be employed for
desalination purposes. The stored thermal energy can be used to evaporate seawater or brackish
water, leaving behind salt and impurities and producing freshwater through condensation.

Aquaculture: Solar ponds can also be utilized for aquaculture, providing a controlled environment
for the cultivation of fish, algae, or other aquatic organisms. The warm water and stable thermal
conditions in the pond can promote the growth and development of aquatic species, enhancing
productivity and yield.

 What are the limitations of grid connected PV system?

Dependence on Grid: Grid-connected PV systems rely on the availability and stability of the
electrical grid. If the grid goes down, these systems typically shut down for safety reasons, unless
they have battery backup or other alternative power sources.

Intermittent Power Generation: PV systems generate electricity only when exposed to sunlight.
Therefore, they cannot produce electricity at night or during cloudy weather unless coupled with
energy storage systems or backup generators.

Energy Storage Requirement: To utilize solar power during periods of low sunlight availability,
such as at night, energy storage systems like batteries are necessary. This adds to the complexity
and cost.

Grid Compatibility: Grid-connected PV systems must meet certain standards and regulations to
ensure compatibility with the existing electrical grid. In some cases, this may require additional
equipment or modifications, which can increase costs.

Grid Stability: If a large number of PV systems are connected to the grid in a particular area, it can
lead to stability issues such as voltage fluctuations and grid congestion, especially if the grid
infrastructure is not designed to handle distributed generation.

Location Dependency: The effectiveness of a grid-connected PV system depends heavily on its

geographical location and the local solar resource. Regions with less sunlight or higher levels of
shading may not be as suitable for these systems.
 What are the power quality issues in the interconnected systems of solar PV and wind
systems? Elaborate.

Voltage Fluctuations: Solar PV and wind energy systems can cause voltage fluctuations in the
electrical grid due to their intermittent nature. Rapid changes in power output, such as when clouds
pass over solar panels or wind speed fluctuates, can lead to voltage variations that may exceed
permissible limits and affect the stability of the grid.

Frequency Variations: Similarly, fluctuations in power output from solar PV and wind turbines can
lead to frequency variations in the electrical grid. Sudden changes in generation can cause
deviations from the nominal frequency, potentially impacting the operation of sensitive equipment
and causing instability.

Voltage Sags and Swells: Voltage sags (temporary reductions) and swells (temporary increases)
can occur in the grid due to rapid changes in power output from solar PV and wind energy systems.
These voltage variations can disrupt the operation of equipment connected to the grid, leading to
malfunctions or damage.

Harmonic Distortion: Solar PV inverters and wind turbine converters can introduce harmonics into
the electrical grid, which are unwanted frequencies that can distort the sinusoidal waveform of the
voltage and current. Harmonic distortion can cause overheating, increased losses, and
malfunctioning of equipment connected to the grid, particularly sensitive electronic devices.

Grid Imbalance: In some cases, an imbalance between generation and consumption in the grid can
occur when the output from solar PV and wind energy systems fluctuates rapidly. This imbalance
can lead to stability issues, voltage deviations, and increased wear and tear on grid infrastructure.

Grid Resonance: Under certain conditions, the interaction between solar PV and wind energy
systems and the grid can result in resonance phenomena, where the grid's impedance matches the
natural frequency of the system. Grid resonance can amplify voltage and current oscillations,
leading to equipment failures and grid instability.
 Explain the differences between fixed speed and variable speed wind turbines.

Differences Fixed-Speed Turbines Variable-Speed Turbines

Operating Speed Fixed-speed turbines operate Variable-speed turbines have

at a constant rotor speed the ability to adjust their rotor
regardless of the wind speed. speed to match the varying
They are typically equipped wind speeds. These turbines
with induction generators that are equipped with power
are directly connected to the electronics, such as doubly-
grid, and the rotor speed is fed induction generators
synchronized with the grid (DFIG) or permanent magnet
frequency. As a result, fixed- synchronous generators
speed turbines produce (PMSG), which allow them to
electricity at a fixed frequency, generate electricity at variable
typically 50 or 60 Hz, which frequencies. Variable-speed
matches the grid frequency. turbines can operate over.

Control Systems Fixed-speed turbines have Variable-speed turbines

relatively simple control require more sophisticated
systems since they operate at control systems to adjust the
a constant speed. The control rotor speed in response to
system typically includes pitch changing wind conditions.
control to optimize power These turbines often employ
production and stall regulation advanced control algorithms to
to prevent turbine over optimize power production,
speeding in high winds. minimize loads on the turbine

Efficiency and Power Fixed-speed turbines are less Variable-speed turbines offer
Capture efficient than variable-speed higher efficiency and better
turbines, especially at low power capture compared to
wind speeds and during partial fixed-speed turbines. By
load conditions. They operate adjusting the rotor speed to
at their optimal efficiency only match the wind speed,
within a narrow range of wind variable-speed turbines can
speeds, limiting their ability to extract more energy from the
capture energy across a wind and operate more
broader range of wind efficiently over a wider range
conditions. of wind speeds.

Cost and Complexity Fixed-speed turbines are Variable-speed turbines are

simpler in design and less more complex and costlier to
expensive to manufacture and manufacture and install due to
install compared to variable- the additional power
speed turbines. However, their electronics and control
lower efficiency and limited systems required. However,
operating range may result in their higher efficiency and
lower overall energy broader operating range often
production and economic result in greater overall.
 What is the principle of wind power generation?

Wind power generation operates on the principle of converting the kinetic energy of moving air
(wind) into mechanical energy and then into electrical energy. Here's how the process unfolds:-

Wind Capture: Wind turbines are strategically positioned in locations with consistent wind patterns.
These turbines consist of rotor blades mounted on a hub, which is connected to a central shaft. As
the wind blows, it exerts a force on the blades, causing them to rotate.

Mechanical Energy Conversion: The rotation of the blades turns the rotor, which in turn rotates the
shaft of a generator located inside the turbine's nacelle. The nacelle is the housing at the top of the
turbine that contains key components such as the generator, gearbox, and control systems. This
rotation produces mechanical energy in the form of rotational motion.

Electrical Energy Generation: Within the generator, the rotational motion induces an electromagnetic
field, which generates an electric current in the generator's windings. The generator converts the
mechanical energy into electrical energy, typically in the form of alternating current (AC). The
amount of electricity generated depends on factors such as wind speed, turbine size, and efficiency
of the generator.

Power Transmission: The electricity generated by the wind turbine is transmitted through cables
within the turbine tower to a substation located either onshore or offshore. From the substation, the
electricity is fed into the electrical grid for distribution to consumers. Power lines and transformers
are used to transmit and regulate the electricity as it travels through the grid.

Grid Integration: Wind farms often consist of multiple turbines interconnected to the electrical grid.
The electricity generated by individual turbines is combined and synchronized with the grid's voltage
and frequency before being transmitted. Grid integration systems, including inverters and
synchronization equipment, ensure that the electricity from wind turbines is compatible with the grid
and can be seamlessly integrated into the existing electrical infrastructure.

 A PV system feeds a DC motor to produce 1 HP power at the shaft. The motor efficiency is
85%. Each module has 36 multicrystalline silicon solar cell arranged in 9X4 matrix. The cell
size is 125mmX125mm and efficiency 12%. Calculate number of modules required in PV
array. Assume global radiation incident normally to the panel as 1 KW/ .

 Area of one module=125 x 10-6 x 125 x 9 x 4 Motor Pout = 1 HP

 =0.5625 m2 = 746 W
 Area of PV array having n modules η = 0.85
 = 0.5625n m2 Pin = Po x η
 Solar Radiation E = 1 kw/m2 = 1000 W/m2 Pin = 877.6 W
 Pin= E x S = 1000 x 0.5625 n
 Pin = 562.5 n
 ∴ Output Power of array
 Pa = 0.12 x 562.5n
 Pa = 67.5
 as, Pa = (Pin) n
 67.5n =877.6
 n = 13
 Explain the protection system of a grid connected PV system?

The protection system of a grid-connected PV (photovoltaic) system is essential for ensuring the
safe and reliable operation of the system and preventing damage to equipment, personnel, and the
electrical grid.

Overcurrent Protection: Overcurrent protection devices, such as fuses or circuit breakers, are
installed in the PV array, inverters, and other system components to protect against excessive
currents that could result from short circuits or overloads. These devices automatically disconnect
the affected circuit in the event

Isolation Switches: Isolation switches are used to physically disconnect the PV array from the rest of
the system, including the inverter and the grid. These switches are typically installed at the PV array
and can be manually or remotely operated to isolate the array for maintenance, troubleshooting, or
emergency.

Anti-Islanding Protection: Anti-islanding protection is designed to prevent the PV system from

continuing to generate electricity during grid outages. Grid-connected inverters are equipped with
anti-islanding protection features that detect grid disturbances and automatically disconnect from
the grid to avoid the problem.

Voltage and Frequency Protection: Voltage and frequency protection devices monitor the voltage
and frequency of the grid and the output of the PV system. If the grid voltage or frequency deviates
from predefined limits, the protection system may initiate actions such as reducing or disconnecting
the output.

Ground Fault Protection: Ground fault protection devices monitor for ground faults or leakage
currents in the PV system. Ground faults can pose safety risks to personnel and may indicate
insulation failures or other faults in the system.

Communication and Monitoring: Communication and monitoring systems allow operators to

remotely monitor and control the performance and status of the grid-connected PV system. These
systems provide real data.

 Explain Betz limit.

The Betz limit is the theoretical maximum efficiency for a wind turbine, conjectured by German
physicist Albert Betz in 1919. Betz concluded that this value is 59.3%, meaning that at most only
59.3% of the kinetic energy from wind can be used to spin the turbine and generate electricity. The
Betz limit is calculated based on idealized assumptions, such as steady, uniform wind flow and no
energy losses within the turbine.

As the wind flows through the rotor blades of a turbine, it imparts a force on the blades, causing
them to rotate. This rotation drives the turbine's generator, producing electrical power. The amount
of energy that can be extracted from the wind depends on the area swept by the rotor blades and
the velocity of the wind.

At the Betz limit, the wind exiting the rotor must have at least one-third of its original velocity. This
is because if the wind were to slow down too much, it would create a high-pressure region behind
the rotor, leading to reduced efficiency and increased turbulence. Conversely, if the wind were to
retain too much of its velocity, it would indicate that the turbine has not captured enough energy.
 Determine the power in the wind if the wind speed is 20 m/s and blade
length is 50 m.

Given:
Wind speed v = 20 m/s,
Blade length l = 50 m,
Air density ρ = 1.23 kg/m.
The area is given by,
A = π × 2500
= 7850 m
The wind power formula is given as,

P = 38622 W

 A propeller type wind turbine has the following data : Speed of free wind
at a height of 10 m = 12 m/s, Air density = 1.226 kg/m3, α = 0.14, height of
tower = 100m, diameter of rotor = 80m, Generator efficiency = 85%, Wind
velocity at the turbine reduces by 20%. V = 0.8 Vz. Calculate (a) total
power available in the wind (b)power extracted by the turbine
 Pav = (π/8) ρ D2 V13
V1 = VH (Z/H)α = 12 (100 /10)0.14 = 16.56 m/s
V1 = 16.56 m/s
V = 0.8 V1 = 13.25 m/s
Pav = (π/8) x 1.226 x (80)2 x (16.56)3 = 13.99 MW
Pav = 13.99 MW
 Pmax = Power extracted by the turbine = (8/27) ρ A V13
= (8/27) x 1.226 x π( 80 2/4) x (16.56) 3
= 8.29 MW
Cp = 4a(1 – a )2
Here a = (V1 – V)/ V1 = (16.56 – 13.25)/ 16.56 = 0.1998
Cp = 4(0.1998)(1 – 0.1998)2 = 0.512
P T = CP Pav = 0.512 x 13.99 MW = 7.15 MW
Efficiency, η = (Po/Pin)