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    Ph. D. Biochemistry: Assist. Prof. Dr. Shakir .F. Tuleab

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    Ph. D. Biochemistry: Assist. Prof. Dr. Shakir .F. Tuleab

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    6 views29 pages

    Ph. D. Biochemistry: Assist. Prof. Dr. Shakir .F. Tuleab

    Uploaded by

    Sava turizam
    111

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Assist. Prof. Dr. Shakir .F.

    Tuleab
    Ph. D. Biochemistry
    University of Anbar
    College of Education for Pure Sciences
    Chemistry Department
    Regulation of Protein Biosynthesis
    Protein Synthesis Notes
    Genetic information (genes) coded in DNA
    provide all the information needed to
    assemble proteins.

    If DNA cannot leave the nucleus


    – How can it get the instructions
    out to make the proteins
    needed to survive??????
    RNA
    1. Contains the sugar
    ribose instead of
    deoxyribose.
    2. Single-stranded
    instead of double
    stranded.
    3. Contains uracil in
    place of thymine.
    RNA Contains:
    1. Adenine
    2. Cytosine
    3. Guanine
    4. Uracil (not
    Thymine)
    Comparison of DNA and RNA
    DNA

    • 3 Main differences between DNA &


    RNA
    1. Sugar:
    a. DNA: Deoxyribose
    b. RNA: Ribose
    2. Nitrogen Bases: A, T, C, & G

    a. DNA: A, T, C, G
    RNA
    b. RNA: A, U, C, G
    – U = uracil
    3. Number of strands that make up
    the molecule:
    a. DNA: two strands
    b. RNA: one strand
    Three Main Types of RNA
    1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) - Carries copies of
    instructions, for the assembly of amino acids
    into proteins, from DNA to the ribosome (serve
    as “messenger”)
    * Made in the nucleus
    Three Main Types of RNA
    2.Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – Makes up the major
    part of ribosomes, which is where proteins are
    made.
    * made in the nucleolus 1 ribosome = 4
    molecules of
    rRNA and 82
    proteins

    Ribosomal
    RNA
    Three Main Types of RNA
    3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) – Transfers (carries)
    amino acids to ribosomes as specified by
    codons in the mRNA
    Proteins
    • Proteins are made up of a chain of amino
    acids.
    2 Steps to Make a Protein
    1. Transcription
    • DNA → RNA
    2. Translation
    • RNA → Protein
    (Chain of amino
    acids)
    Step 1: Transcription
    1. Transcription: a complementary
    single strand of mRNA is copied from
    part of the DNA in the nucleus
    a. RNA Polymerase, an enzyme,
    unwinds DNA strand
    b. RNA polymerase “reads” one
    strand of DNA bases and makes
    the RNA strand
    • If DNA is TACCAGTTT
    • mRNA will be AUGGUCAAA

    c. mRNA leaves and DNA


    strands will coil back up
    Step 1b: mRNA editing
    1. mRNA editing: cutting and
    splicing mRNA before it leaves
    the nucleus
    a. Introns- (intruders) “junk
    DNA” that doesn’t code for
    proteins are cut out
    b. Exons- “good DNA” that
    code for proteins stay and
    are expressed
    2. Introns are removed and exons
    are spliced together.
    3. Edited mRNA is sent out of
    nucleus to ribosome
    (the exons can be spliced together in
    different sequences to produce different
    mRNA’s = different proteins)
    Fun FACT:
    • Over 98% of the human genome is
    noncoding DNA (introns)… Evolution
    perhaps?!?
    We have 25,000 genes but produce more
    than 100,000 diff proteins = splicing
    Transcription: DNA → RNA
    Step 2: Translation
    1. How the code is read:
    a. Every 3 bases on mRNA
    represents a code for an amino
    acid = codon.
    b. Amino acids are abbreviated
    most times by using the first 3
    letters of the amino acid’s
    name.
    • Met = methonine
    • Leu = leucine
    Reading the Codon Chart

    Examples:
    AUG = Methionine
    CAU = Histidine
    UAG = Stop
    First Third
    Position Position

    Try
    these: Answers:
    GCU: Alanine
    UAC: Tyrosine
    CUG: Leucine This chart only works for mRNA codons.
    UUA: Leucine
    Step 2: Translation
    • Translation - Translating of a mRNA codons
    into a protein (amino acid chain)
    – Takes place on ribosomes in cytoplasm
    Step 2: Translation
    1. Edited mRNA attaches to a ribosome
    2. As each codon of the mRNA molecule moves through the
    ribosome, the tRNA brings the proper amino acid to the
    ribosome.
    – Notice the anticodon on tRNA – it is complementary to the
    mRNA codon
    – The amino acids are joined together by chemical bonds
    called peptide bonds to build an amino acid chain called a
    “polypeptide”
    Regulation of Protein Synthesis
    • Start codons: found at the beginning of a
    protein
    – Only one - AUG (methionine)
    • Stop codons: found at the end of a protein
    (end of a polypeptide chain)
    • Three stop codons that do not code for any
    amino acid therefore making the process stop
    : UAA, UAG,UGA
    Translation

    Nucleus
    mRNA

    Lysine
    Phenylalanine t RNA
    Methionine

     Anticodon

    Ribosome

    mRNA 

    Start codon
    Translation

    Growing polypeptide chain


    The Polypeptide “Assembly Line”
    Ribosome
    tRNA

    Lysine tRNA

    mRNA

    Completing the Polypeptide


    mRNA Translation direction
    Ribosome
    Roles of RNA and DNA
    • The cell uses the vital DNA “master plan” to
    prepare RNA “blueprints.”
    • The DNA molecule remains within the safety
    of the nucleus, while RNA molecules go to the
    protein-building sites in the cytoplasm—the
    ribosomes.
    Regulation of Protein Synthesis
    • Start codons: found at the beginning of a
    protein
    – Only one - AUG (methionine)
    • Stop codons: found at the end of a protein
    (end of a polypeptide chain)
    • Three stop codons that do not code for any
    amino acid therefore making the process stop
    : UAA, UAG,UGA
    Gene Regulation
     Only a fraction of the genes in a cell are
    “expressed” at any given time
     (An “expressed” gene = exons= genes that are actually
    transcribed into RNA)
     How does the cell determine which gene will
    be expressed and which will remain ‘silent’?
     Promoters allow RNA polymerase to bind to begin transcription.
    Repressors prevent RNA polymerase from binding to go through
    transcription.
     Other DNA sequences (regulatory sites) act to turn on/off a
    gene
    Section 12-5 Typical Gene Structure
    Promoter
    Regulatory
    (RNA polymerase
    sites DNA strand
    binding site)

    Start transcription Stop transcription


    Gene Regulation
    • The expression of genes can also be influenced by
    environmental factors such as temperature, light,
    chemicals, etc.
    Gene Regulation
    A. Not all genes are active (expressed) at the same time.
    1. Why: Because the cell would produce many
    molecules it did NOT need – waste of energy and
    raw materials
    2. Gene expression (protein synthesis) is when the
    product of a gene (specific protein) is being
    actively produced by a cell.
    a. some genes are – rarely expressed --
    adrenaline
    b. some genes are – constantly expressed –
    hair growth, blood pressure
    c. some genes are – expressed for a time, then
    turned off (cyclical) -- estrogen

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