Algorithm Design & Problem-Solving

Program Development Life Cycle (PDLC)

 Analysis
 Design
 Coding
 Testing
 Maintenance
Analysis
 Before solving a problem, it is essential to define and document the problem
clearly, known as the "requirements specification" for the program.
 The analysis stage involves using tools like abstraction and decomposition to
identify the specific requirements for the program.
 Abstraction focuses on the essential elements needed for the solution while
eliminating unnecessary details and information.
 Decomposition involves breaking down complex problems into smaller, more
manageable parts that can be solved individually.
 Daily tasks can be decomposed into constituent parts for easier
understanding and solving.
Design
 The program specification derived from the analysis stage is used as a guide
for program development.
 During the design stage, the programmer should clearly understand the tasks
to be completed, the methods for performing each task, and how the tasks
will work together.
 Documentation methods such as structure charts, flowcharts, and
pseudocode can be used to document the program's design formally.
Coding and iterative testing
 The program or set of programs is developed based on the design.
 Each module of the program is written using a suitable programming
language.
 Testing is conducted to ensure that each module functions correctly.
 Iterative testing is performed, which involves conducting modular tests,
making code amendments if necessary, and repeating tests until the module
meets the required functionality.
Testing
 The completed program or set of programs is executed multiple times using
various test data sets.
 This testing process ensures that all the tasks within the program work
together as specified in the program design.
 Running the program with different test data can identify and address
potential issues and errors.
 The testing phase aims to verify the overall functionality and performance of
the program by evaluating its behaviour with various inputs.
Structure Diagrams
 Every computer system is made up of sub-systems, which are in turn made
up of further sub-systems.
 Structure Diagrams – The breaking down of a computer system into sub-
systems, then breaking each sub-system into smaller sub-systems until each
one only performs a single action. A structure diagram diagrammatically
represents a top-down design. Example below.

Pseudocode & Flowcharts

 Pseudocode - Verbal representation of an algorithm (a process or set of
steps) and flowcharts are a diagrammatic representation.
 Flowcharts: A flowchart shows diagrammatically the steps required to
complete a task and the order that they are to be performed
 Algorithm: These steps, together with the order, are called an algorithm
An example of a flowchart is given below from a past paper question in which all of
the functions of a flowchart are shown:
This flowchart’s task is to check if a rider’s height is more the requirement (1.2) in
this case. It then counts until the accepted riders are 8. After they are 8, it outputs
the number of rejected riders and tells the rest that they are ready to go!
Pseudocode
 Declaration & Usage of Variables & Constants
o Variable – Store of data which changes during execution of the
program (due to user input)
o Constant – Store of data that remains the same during the execution of
the program
 Basic Data Types
Integer – Whole Number e.g. 2; 8; 100
o Real – Decimal Number e.g. 7.00; 5.64

o Char – Single Character e.g. a; Y

o String – Multiple Characters (Text) e.g. ZNotes; COOL

o Boolean – Only 2 Values e.g. True/False; Yes/No; 0/1

 Input & Output (READ & PRINT) – Used to receive and display data to the
user respectively. (It is recommended to use input and output commands)
INPUT Name
OUTPUT "Hello Mr." , Name

// Alternatively //

READ Name
PRINT "Hello Mr," , Name
 Declaration of variable - A variable/constant can be declared by the
following manner
DECLARE [Variable Name] : [DATATYPE OF VARIABLE]
 Array: Array is similar to variable but it can store multiple values of same
datatype under single name
DECLARE [ARRAYNAME] : ARRAY [Lower Limit : Upper Limit ] OF [DATATYPE]
 Assignment - Each variable is assigned using a left arrow.
[VARIABLE NAME] <---- [Value to be assigned]
ArrayName [IndexValue] <---- [Value to be assigned]
 Conditional Statements:
IF…THEN…ELSE…ENDIF
 CASE…OF…OTHERWISE…ENDCASE – Multiple
conditions and corresponding consequences \n

 Loop Structures:
 FOR…TO…NEXT : Will run for a determined/known amount of times

REPEAT… UNTIL – Will run at least once till condition is satisfied; Verification is done

after running code WHILE…DO…ENDWHILE – May not ever

run; Verification is done before running code
Note: When using conditions in these loop structures and conditional statement, it
has to be kept in mind that it can be done in two ways.
1. use of a Boolean variable that can have the value TRUE or FALSE
2. comparisons made by using coparison operators, where comparisons
are made from left to right
IF [BOOLEAN VARIABLE]
THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF
IF ((CONDITION 1) OR ( CONDITION 2)) AND (CONDITION 3) AND (CONDITION 4)
THEN
OUTCOME
ELSE
OUTCOME
ENDIF

Standard methods used in algorithm:

 Totalling :Totalling means keeping a total that values are added to
Total ← 0
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit
Total ← Total + ValueToBeTotalled
NEXT Counter
 Counting: Keeping a count of the number of times an action is performed is
another standard method.
PassCount ← 0
FOR Counter ← 1 TO LoopLimit
INPUT Value
IF Value > Range
THEN
PassCount ← PassCount + 1
ENDIF
NEXT Counter
 Maximum, minimum and average : Finding the largest and smallest values in
a list are two standard methods that are frequently found in algorithms
MaxiumumValue <--- Array[1] MinimumValue <--- Array[1]
FOR Counter ← 2 TO LoopLimit
IF Array[Counter] > MaximumValue
THEN
MaximumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF

IF Array[Counter] < MinimumValue

THEN
MinimumValue ← Array[Counter]
ENDIF
NEXT Counter

// Average//
Total ← 0
FOR Counter ← 1 TO NumberOfValues
Total ← Total + StudentMark[Counter]
NEXT Counter
Average ← Total / NumberOfValues
 Linear Search: In a linear search, each item in the list is inspected
sequentially until a match is found or the entire list is traversed.

INPUT Value
Found ← FALSE
Counter ← 0
REPEAT
IF Value = Array[Counter]
THEN
Found ← TRUE
ELSE
Counter ← Counter + 1
ENDIF
UNTIL Found OR Counter > NumberOfValues
IF Found
THEN
OUTPUT Value , " found at position " , Counter, " in the list."
ELSE
OUTPUT Value , " not found."
ENDIF
 Bubble Sort: Iteratively compare and swap adjacent elements in a list to
sort them. Start from the first element and continue until the second-to-last
element. After each pass, the last element is in its correct place. However,
other elements may still be unsorted. Repeat the process, excluding the last
element, until only one element remains or no swaps are needed.
First ← 1
Last ← 10
REPEAT
Swap ← FALSE
FOR Index ← First TO Last - 1
IF Array[Index] > Array[Index + 1]
THEN
Temp ← Array[Index]
Array[Index] ← Array[Index + 1]
Array[Index + 1] ← Temp
Swap ← TRUE
ENDIF
NEXT Index
Last ← Last - 1
UNTIL (NOT Swap) OR Last = 1
Test Data
 Test data refers to input values used to evaluate and assess the functionality
and performance of a computer program or system.
 It helps identify errors and assess how the program handles different
scenarios
Normal Data
 Normal data is the test data which accepts values in acceptible range of
values of the program
 Normal data should be used to work through the solution to find the actual
result(s) and see if they are the same as the expected result(s)
 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100
(inclusive) are accepted, normal test data will be : 23, 54, 64 , 2 and 100
Abnormal Data
 Test data that would be rejected by the solution as not suitable, if the solution
is working properly is called abnormal test data / erroneous test data.
 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100
(inclusive) are accepted, abnormal data will be: -1, 151, 200, 67.2, “Sixty-
Two” and -520
Extreme Data
 Extreme data are the largest and smallest values that normal data can take
 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100
(inclusive) are accepted, extreme data will be: 0 and 100
Boundary Data
 This is used to establish where the largest and smallest values occur
 At each boundary two values are required: one value is accepted and the
other value is rejected.
 e.g. in a program where only whole number values ranging from 0 to 100
(inclusive) are accepted, one example of boundary data will be: 100 and 101.
100 will be accepted and 101 will not be accepted
Trace Table
 A trace table is utilized to document the outcomes of every step in an
algorithm. It is employed to record the variable's value each time it
undergoes a change.
 A dry run refers to the manual process of systematically executing an
algorithm by following each step in sequence.
 A trace table is set up with a column for each variable and a column for any
output e.g.

Test data is employed to execute a dry run of the flowchart and document the
outcomes in a trace table. During the dry run:
 Whenever a variable's value changes, the new value is recorded in the
respective column of the trace table.
 Each time a value is outputted, it is displayed in the output column.
An example of trace table is given below using a past paper question:
Q: The flowchart below inputs the height of children who want to ride on a
rollercoaster. Children under 1.2 metres are rejected. The ride starts when eight
children have been accepted.
Complete the trace table for the input data: 1.4, 1.3, 1.1, 1.3, 1.0, 1.5, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4,
1.3, 0.9, 1.5, 1.6, 1.0

Ride Reje Heig

OUTPUT
rs ct ht

0 0

1 1.4

2 1.3

1 1.1

3 1.3

2 1.0

4 1.5

3 1.2
 Ride Reje Heig
OUTPUT
rs ct ht

5 1.3

6 1.4

7 1.3

4 0.9

Ready to
8 1.5
go 4

Identifying errors:
 Trace tables can be used to trace errors in a program. For example, if the
requirement for the previous question would be to accept riders that are of
height 1.2 too, rather than rejecting them, then the error would have been
caught in the trace table as when 1.2 is entered, it would increment rejected
which it shouldn’t in our example
How to write an algorithm?
The ability to write an algorithm is very important for this syllabus and
paper. Some key steps/points to be known in-order to write the perfect
algorithm are as follows:
1. Make sure that the problem is clearly understood which includes knowing the
purpose of the algorithm and the tasks to be completed by the algorithm.
2. Break the problem into smaller problems (e.g. in a program which outputs
average values, divide the problem into multiple ones i.e. how to count the
number of iterations and how to count the total of all values)
3. Identify the data that is needed to be saved into variables/constants/arrays
and what datatype it is, and declare all the variables/constants/arrays
accordingly, with meaningfull names
4. Decide on how you are going to construct your algorithm, either using a
flowchart or pseudocode. If you are told how to construct your algorithm,
then follow the guidance.
5. Construct your algorithm, making sure that it can be easily read and
understood by someone else. Take particular care with syntax e.g. when
conditions are used for loops and selection.
6. Use several sets of test data (Normal, Abnormal and Boundary) to dry run
your algorithm and check if the expected results are achieved (a trace table
 can be used for this purpose) . If error is found, find the point of error in the
trace table and fix it in the code.
Note: The algorithms that you have looked at so far in these notes were not
designed with readability in mind because you needed to work out what the
problem being solved was.
Validation and Verification
To ensure the acceptance of reasonable and accurate data inputs, computer
systems must thoroughly examine each data item before accepting it, and this is
where Validation and Verification come into play!
Validation
Validation in computer systems involves automated checks to ensure the
reasonableness of data before accepting it. If the data is invalid, the system should
provide an explanatory message for rejection and allow another chance to enter the
data.
\n There are many types of it.
Range check
A range check verifies that a numerical value falls within specified upper and lower
limits.
REPEAT
INPUT Value
IF Value < MinimumValue OR Value > MaximumValue
THEN
OUTPUT "The student's mark should be in the range", MinimumValue ," to ",
MaximumValue
ENDIF
UNTIL Value >= MinimumValue AND Value <= MaximumValue
Length check
This can either ensure that data consists of a precise number of characters.
OUTPUT "Please enter your value of ", Limit , " characters "
REPEAT
INPUT Value
IF LENGTH(Value) <> Limit
THEN
 OUTPUT "Your value must be exactly" , Limit ," characters, please re-enter "
ENDIF
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) = Limit
It can also check if the data entered is a reasonable number of characters or not
OUTPUT "Please enter your value "
REPEAT
INPUT Value
IF LENGTH(Value) > UpperLimit OR LENGTH(Value) < LowerLimit
THEN
OUTPUT "Too short or too long, please re-enter "
ENDIF
UNTIL LENGTH(Value) <= UpperLimit AND LENGTH(Value) >= LowerLimit
Type check
A type check verifies that the entered data corresponds to a specific data type.
OUTPUT "Enter the value "
REPEAT
INPUT Value
IF Value <> DIV(Value, 1)
THEN
OUTPUT "This must be a whole number, please re-enter"
ENDIF
UNTIL Value = DIV(Value, 1)
Presence check
A presence check checks to ensure that some data has been entered and the value
has not been left blank
OUTPUT "Please enter the value "
REPEAT
INPUT Value
IF Value = ""
THEN
 OUTPUT "*=Required "
ENDIF
UNTIL Value <> ""
Format Check
A format check checks that the characters entered conform to a pre-defined
pattern.
Check Digit
 A check digit is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from all the
other digits.
 Check digits are used for barcodes, product codes, International Standard
Book Numbers (ISBN), and Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).
Verification
Verification is checking that data has been accurately copied from one source to
another
There are 2 methods to verify data during entry ( there are other methods
during data transfer, but they are in paper 1)
1. Double Entry
 Data is inputted twice, potentially by different operators.
 The computer system compares both entries and if they differ, an error
message is displayed, prompting the data to be reentered.
2. Screen/Visual check
 A screen/visual check involves the user manually reviewing the entered data.
 After data entry, the system displays the data on the screen and prompts the
user to confirm its accuracy before proceeding.
 The user can compare the displayed data against a paper document used as
an input form or rely on their own knowledge to verify correctness.