COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CENTRAL PHILIPPINE UNIVERSITY

ILOILO CITY, PHILIPPINES
Tel. Nos. (033) 3291971 (to 79) Local 1085
Fax No. (033) 3203004
Email: chem._engg@cpu.edu.ph

MODULE 1 – Part 3
PRINCIPLES of TRANSPORT PROCESSES

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CONVECTION
In most situation involving a liquid or a gas in heat transfer, convective heat transfer usually
occurs as well as conduction. In most industrial processes where heat transfer is occurring,
heat is being transferred from the one through a solid wall to a second fluid.
This is the temperature profile heat transfer by convection from one fluid A to another one
fluid B.

T1
T2

cold fluid B metal wall T3

T4
warm fluid A

T5
q
T6

Heat is being transferred from the hot flowing fluid to the cold flowing fluid.
The velocity gradient, when the fluid is in turbulent flow, is very steep next to the wall in the
thin viscous sublayer where turbulence is absent. Here the heat transfer is mainly by
conduction, with a large temperature difference of T2  T3 in the warm fluid.

As we move farther from the wall, we approach the turbulent region, where rapidly moving
eddies, tend to equalize the temperature. Hence, the temperature gradient is less and the
difference T1  T2 is small.

The average temperature of fluid A is slightly less than the peak value, T1 .

The convective coefficient for heat transfer through a fluid is given by

Working Formula: q  hAT  Tw 

where: T = bulk or average temperature of the fluid in K

Tw = temperature of the wall in contact with the fluid in K

The type of fluid flow, whether laminar or turbulent of the individual fluid has a great effect on
h (often called a film coefficient)
Since most of the resistance to heat transfer is in a thin film close to the wall. The more
turbulent the flow, the greater the heat-transfer coefficient.

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TYPES OF CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
1. Free or natural convection – this is where the motion of the fluid results from density
changes in heat transfer and the buoyant effect is the reason why there is just natural
circulation of the fluid, so it moves past the solid surface.
2. Forced convection - the form of convection when the fluid is forced to flow by
pressure differences, a pump, a fan, a blower and so on.

Most of the correlation for predicting film coefficients h , are semi empirical in nature and are
affected by the physical properties of the fluid, the type and velocity of flow, the temperature
difference, and the geometry of the specific physical system.
Table 1 - APPROXIMATE MAGNITUDE OF SOME HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Range of Values of h
Mechanism
Btu W
hr  ft 2  F m2 K

Condensing steam 1,000 - 5,000 5,700 - 28,000

Condensing organics 200 – 500 1,100 - 2,800

Boiling liquids 300 - 5,000 1,700 - 28,000

Moving water 50 - 3,000 280 - 17,000

Moving HC 10 – 300 55 - 1,700

Still air 0.5 – 4 2.8 - 23

Moving air 2 – 10 11.3 - 55

Btu W
To convert HTC from English unit to SI unit: 1  5.6783 2
hr  ft  F
2
m K

To correlate the physical properties of the fluid for HTC, dimensionless numbers such as
the Re and Pr numbers are used.

Pr is the ratio of the shear component of diffusivity for momentum  to the diffusivity for

heat k and physically relates the relative thicknesses of the hydrodynamic layer and
C p

thermal boundary layer:  Cp .
N Pr  
k k
C p

Note: The values of the N Pr for gases are given in Perry’s Handbook

 Its values range from about 0.5 to 1.0 - gases

 Its values range from about 2 to well over 104 – liquids

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Nusselt No. ( N Nu ) - used to relate data for HTC, h , to thermal conductivity k of the fluid and a
hD
character dimension D: N Nu  (for flow inside a pipe, D is the diameter)
k
FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Case 1: HTC for laminar flow inside a pipe
The most important convective heat transfer process industrially is that of cooling or heating a
fluid flowing inside a closed circular conduit or pipe. The following different types of correlation
for the convective coefficient are needed for different types of flow.

1. For laminar flow ( N Re below 2100 )

2. For fully turbulent flow ( N Re above 6000 )

3. For transition region ( N Re between 2,100 and 6,000 )

For laminar flow of fluids inside horizontal tubes or pipes, the following equation of
Sieder and Tate (SI) can be used for N Re  2,100

1 0.14
 D  b 
N Nu a
3
hD
 a  1.86 N Re  N Pr     Equation 1
k  L  w 
where: D = pipe diameter in meter

L = pipe length before mixing occurs in the pipe in meter

b = fluid viscosity at bulk average temperature in Pa - sec

w = viscosity at the wall temperature

C p = heat capacity in J ; k = thermal conductivity in W

kg  K mK

ha = average heat transfer coefficient in W

m2  K

N Nu = dimensionless Nusselt Number

Note: All the physical properties are evaluated at the bulk fluid temperature except w

D DG Cp
N Re  or ; N Pr 
  k

 D
This equation holds for  N Re N Pr   100
 L

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 If greater than 10 it holds true, but  20% margin of error is applied. If less than 10, we have
another expression to use but is no longer covered by this lecture.

Note: In laminar flow, ha  average coefficient, depends strongly on heated length

q  ha ATa  ha A
Tw  Tbi   Tw  Tbo 
2

Average (arithmetic mean) temperature drop

Ta is used to calculate the heat transfer, q
where: Tw = wall temp. in K ; Tbi = inlet bulk fluid temp. ; Tbo = outlet bulk fluid temp.

For large pipe diameter and large T between pipe wall and bulk fluid, natural convection
effects can increase h .

Note: Equations are also available for laminar flow in vertical tubes.

Case 2: HTC for turbulent flow inside a pipe (when N Re  6,000 )

Since the rate of heat transfer is greater in the turbulent region, many industrial heat transfer
processes are in the turbulent region.
The following equation has been found to hold for tubes and also used for pipes

L
It holds for N Re  6,000 ; N Pr between 0.7 and 16,000 ;  60
D
0.14
hD 1   
N Nu  L  0.027 N Re  N Pr 3  b  Equation 2
k  w 

where: hL - HTC based on the log mean driving force T  T2  T1
lm
T2
ln
T1

Correction: NRe is raised to exponent 0.8 in Equation 2

Ti  To
The fluid property except for w are evaluated at mean bulk temperature =
2
Note: The use of the above equation may be trial and error since the value of hL must be
known in order to evaluate Tw and hence w , at the wall temperature.

HTC for turbulent flow for a pipe  HTC for turbulent flow for a smooth tube

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For air at 1atm pressure, the following equation holds true for turbulent flow in pipes.

3.5 0.8 0.5 s

0.8
hL  ( SI ) ; hL  ( English)
D 0.2 D'0.2
where: D is in m ;  in m s ; hL in W
m2  K

D' is in inches ;  s in ft sec ; hL in Btu

hr  ft 2  F

Water is often used in heat-transfer equipment. A simplified equation to use for a temperature
range of T  4  105C ( 40  220F ) is;

 0.8  s 0.8
hL  14291  0.01467C  ( SI ) ; hL  1501  0.0017 F  ( English)
D 0.2 D'0.2
Note: Change 7 to T

For organic liquids, a very simplified equation to use for approximation is

 0.8  s 0.8
hL  423 ( SI ) ; hL  60 English
D 0.2 D'0.2
Example 1: Heating of Air in Turbulent Flow

Air at 206.8kPa and an average of 477.6K is being heated as it flows through a tube of
25.4mm inside diameter at a velocity of 7.62 m . The heating medium is 488.7 K steam
s
condensing on the outside of the tube. Since the HTC of condensing steam is several thousand
W 2 and the resistance of the metal wall is very small, it will be assumed that the surface
m K
wall temperature of the metal in contact with the air is 488.7 K . Calculate the heat-transfer
coefficient for an L  60 and also the heat-transfer flux q .
D A

Data from Perry’s Handbook for the physical properties of air at 477.6K 204.4C 

b  2.6 105 Pa.s  2.6 105 kg m  s ; k  0.03894W m ; N Pr  0.686

At 488.7 K 215.5C  :  w  2.64  10 5 Pa.s

 1  206.8  273.2 
Solution:   28.97   
 22.414  101.33  477.6 

  1.509 kg
m3

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 D 0.02547.621.509
At 477.6K : N Re   ; N Re  1.22  10 4
 2.6 105

 The flow is turbulent, use equation 2:

0.14
hD 1.3   
 L  0.027 N Re N Pr  b 
0.8
N Nu
k  w 

hL 0.0254
0.14


 0.027 1.122 104  0.686
0.8 1
3
 0.026 
  ; hL  63.2 W
m2  K
0.03894  0.0264 

 hL Tw  T  ;  63.2488.7  477.6 ;

q q q W
 701.1 2
A A A m
Case 3: Liquid Metals Heat Transfer Coefficient
This HTC is sometimes used in cases where a fluid is needed over a wide temperature range at
relatively low pressure. Often used in nuclear reactors, which require a high heat transfer
coefficient and high heat capacity/volume. The high heat-transfer coefficients are due to very
high thermal conductivities and therefore low N Pr .

Note: In liquid metals in pipes, HT by conduction is very important than the convection effects.

For fully developed turbulent flow in tubes which uniform heat flux, the following
equations are used.

hL D
N Nu   0.625N Pe
0.4

k Equation 3

where the N Pe  N Re N Pr

L
This holds true for  60 and N Pe between 100 and 104
D
For constant wall temperature

hL D
N Nu   5.0  0.025N Pe
0.8
Equation 4
k
This holds true for

L
 60 N Pe  100
D and

All physical properties are evaluated at the average bulk temperature.

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Example 2: A liquid Metal Heat Transfer Inside a Tube

A liquid metal flows at a rate of 4 kg sec through a tube having an inside diameter of 0.05m .
The liquid enters at 500K and is heated to 505K in the tube. The tube wall is maintained at a
temperature of 30K above the fluid bulk temperature and constant heat flux is also maintained.
Calculate the required tube length. The average physical properties are as follows:

  7.110 4 Pa  s
  7400 kg
m2
C p  120 J
kg  K
k  13W
mK

m   A 
G 
A A
Solution:

D 2  0.052
A   1.963 103 m 2
4 4
4
G  2.038 103 kg 2
1.963 103 m s
then

N Re 
DG


0.05 2.038 103 
 1.435 105
 7.110 4

N Pr  

C p  120 7.110  4 
 0.00655
k 13
Use Equation 3

hL D
N Nu   0.625N Pe
0.4

but N Pe  N Re  N Pr

k  N Nu k
 0.625N Pe ; 0.625N Re  N Pr 0.4
k
hL  hL 
0.4

D D D

hL 
13
0.6251.435  0.006550.4 ; hL  2512W m 2  K
0.05
Note: 1.435 is raised to exponent 5

Using a heat balance: q  m  C p T  4120 505  500  ; q  2400W

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  hL Tw  T   251230
q
A
2400
 75,360W 2
A m
2400
A  3.185  10  2 m 2
75,360
A  DL   0.05L
L  0.203m

NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

This occurs when a solid surface is in contact with a gas or liquid which is at a different
temperature from the surface. Density difference in the fluid arising from the heating process
provide the buoyancy force required to move the fluid. Free or natural is observed as a result of
the motion of the fluid.
Example: Hot radiator used for heating a room
Cold air encountering the radiator is heated and rises in natural convection because of
buoyancy forces

Case 1 - Natural Convection from vertical planes or plates and cylinder

For an isothermal vertical surface or plates with height L  1m , average natural

convection HTC can be expressed by the following equation

 L3  2 gT C p  
m

  aN Gr N Pr m
h
N Nu  L  a 
k   2
k 

where a and m are constants,

NGr , the Grashof No. ,  in kg

m3

 , viscosity in kg / m – s ;
∆T, the positive temperature difference between the wall and the bulk fluid or vice
versa in kelvin

k , the thermal conductivity in W

mK

C p , heat capacity in J / kg-K ; g = 9.80665 m / s2

 , the volumetric coefficient of expansion of the fluid in 1 K

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 For gases  is 1
Tf  K

Note: All properties are evaluated at T f (film temperature) =

Tw  Tb 
2

and g is 32.174  3600

1 1 2 ft
In English Units:  is in
T f F  460 R hr 2

Example 3: Natural Convection from a vertical wall of an oven

A heated vertical wall 1 ft (0.305 m) high of an oven for baking food with the surface at
450F 505.4K  is in contact with air at 100F 311K  . Calculate the HTC and the heat transfer/
ft width of wall. Use English and SI units
Solution:

T  Tw  Tb  450  100  350F 194.4K  ;

Tw  Tb 450  100 505.4  311

Tf  ; Tf   275 F ; T f   408.2 K
2 2 2
1 1 1 3
 ;   1.36 10  3 ;    2.45 10
Tf 275  460 R 408.2 K K

L3  2 gT 1 0.0541 32.1743600 1.36 103 350

3 2 2
N Gr  ; N Gr  = 1.84 x 108
2 0.05622
The physical properties of air at 275F are k  0.0198 Btu or 0.0343W
hr  ft F mK

  0.0541lbm or 0.867 kg
ft3 m3

 
in SI units: N Pr  0.69 ;   0.0232C p 2.4191  0.0562
lbm
ft  hr
or 2.32 105 Pa  sec

0.305 0.867 9.8062.45 103 194.4

3 2
 N Gr  1.84  10 8
N Gr
2.32 10 5
;

 
N Gr N Pr 1.84 10 8 0.69   1.27  10 8

From Table 4.7 – 1 (photo shared c/o Chat Group): For vertical planes and cylinders with
height & L  1m and NGr N Pr from 104  109 , then a = 0.59 and m ‘= 1/4

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 aN Gr N Pr 
k
Using equation 5: h 
m

L
In English units

h
0.0198
1.0

0.59 1.27 108  1
4
; h  1.24 Btu
hr  ft 2

In SI units

h
0.0343
0.305

0.59 1.27 108  1
4
; h  7.03W
m2  K

for a 1 ft width of wall: A  11  1 ft 2 ; A  0.305  0.305  0.093025m2

then q  hATw  Tb  ; q  1.241450  100 ; q  433 Btu or

hr

q  7.030.093025194.4 ; q  127.13W
Note: Simplified equations for the natural convection heat transfer from air to vertical planes
and cylinders at 1atm absolute are available in Table 4.7 -2 (photo shared in Chat Group). In SI
units the equation for the range of NGr N Pr , 104 to 109 is the one usually encountered, and this
 
holds for L3T values below about 4.7m3 K and film temperature between 255 and 533K .

To correct the value of h to pressure other than 1atm , the values of h in Table 4.7-2 (shared

in Chat Group) can be multiplied by P  101.32

 1
2
for NGr  N Pr 104 to 109 and by P  101.32

2
3
for

N Gr N Pr  10 9 where p  pressure in kN .
m2

In English units the range of NGr N Pr , 104 to 109 is encountered when L3T is less than  
about 300 ft3 F .The value of h can be corrected to pressures other than 1atm absolute by
1 2
multiplying the h at 1atm by P 2
for NGr N Pr , 104 - 109 and by P 3
for NGr N Pr above 109 ,
where P = atmospheric absolute pressure.

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RADIATION
It has been seen that heat transfer by conduction takes place through either a solid or a
stationary fluid and heat transfer by convection takes place as a result of either forced or natural
movement of a hot fluid.
The 3rd mechanism of heat transfer, radiation, can take place without either a solid or a fluid
being present. That is through a vacuum, although many fluids are transparent to radiation.

and it is generally assumed that the emission of

thermal radiation is by “waves” of wavelengths in the
range of 0.1-100 m which travel in straight lines.

In thermal radiation, a so-called black body absorbs all the radiation falling upon it,
regardless of wavelength and direction, and, for given temperature and wavelength, no surface
can emit more energy than a black body.

The radiation emitted by a black body is a function of  and T , is regarded as diffuse, that
is, it is independent of direction.
A black body, is a perfect emitter or absorber, it provides a standard against which the
radiation properties of real surfaces may be compared.
If the emissive power E of a radiation source that is the energy emitted per unit area per
unit time, is expressed in terms of radiation of single wavelength  , then this is known as the
monochromatic or spectral emissive power E which is defined as that rate at which radiation of
a particular  is emitted per unit surface area, per unit  in all directions.

For a black body at temperature T , the spectral emissive power of a  is given by Planck’s
Distribution Law:

C1
Emissive power E = Equation 1
 5 C2  
  exp T   1
   

where: E , is W 3 and C1  3.742 1016 W 2 , C2  1.439 102 m  K

m m
Example 4:

What is the temperature of surface coated with carbon black if the emissive power at a  of
1.0 106 m is 110 9 W ?
m3
Solution:

C1
E 
 C 
5  exp 2   1
 T 

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 C  C
exp 2   1 5  1
 T  E 

 1.439 102  3.742 106

exp   (correction 3.742 x 10 -16 not -6)
6 

 110 T  110 1.0 10
9

6
5

 1.439 104 
exp   3.742 105
 T 

1.439 104 1.439 104

T

 ln 3.742 105 ;  T
12.83
; T  1121K

The wavelength at which maximum emission takes place is related to the absolute
temperature by Wein’s Displacement Law, which states that the wavelength for maximum
emission varies inversely with the absolute temperature of the source, or:

maxT = constant, C3 Equation 2

where: C3  2.898  10 3 m  K

Combine Equations 1 and 2 :

C1
E max 
 C3    C2   
5

  exp   1 
 T    C3   

E max  C4T 5 Equation 3

W
where: C4 = 4th radiation constant ; C4  12.86 (correction 12.86 has exponent -6)
m K5
3

The total emissive power E is defined as the rate at which radiation energy is emitted per
unit time per unit area of surface over- all  ' s and in all directions.

This may be determined by making a summation of all the radiation at all  ' s , that is by
determining the area corresponding to a particular temperature under the Planck distribution
curve.

d
Eb  C1  Equation 4
 5  C2   
  exp   1
0

   T   

known as Stefan-Boltzmann Law. This may be integrated for any constant value of T to give:

E b  T 4 Equation 5

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  = Stefan-Boltzmann constant;   5.67 108 W
m2  K 4
Example 5:

Heated carbide elements, 10mm in diameter and 0.5m long, radiating essentially as black
bodies, are to be used in the construction of a heater in which thermal radiation from the
surrounding is negligible. If the surface temperature of the carbide is limited to 1750K , how
many elements are required to provide a radiated thermal output of 500kW ?

Solution: Using eq.5


Eb  T 4  5.67 10 8  1750 4 
Eb  5.32 105 W
m2

 10 
The area of one element =   2
0.5  1.57110 m
2

 1000 
The power dissipated by one element is

 5.32 105
W
m2

1.57 102 m 2 
 8.367 103W
Number of elements required


500 1000
8.367 103
 59.8  60

Radiation from Real Surfaces

The emissivity of a material is defined as the ratio of the radiation per unit area emitted from
a “real” or from a grey surface to that emitted by a black body at the same temperature.

(one for which the emissivity is independent of wavelength)

Emmissivity, “e” of real materials are less than 1 and they depend on: a. type ; b. condition ; c.
roughness of the material and possibly on d. direction of the emitted radiation
For diffuse surfaces where “e” is independent of direction, the “e” which represents an average
over all directions → → hemispherical “e”

`
For a particular  , this is given by the equation

e  E Eb Equation 6

and the total hemispherical emissivity, an average overall wavelength, is given by

E
e Equation 7
eb

When the spectral emissivity does not vary with  , then the surface is known as a grey
body and for a diffuse grey body, e can be replaced by e in equation 5 and equation 7

E  eEb  eT 4 Equation 8

In this way, the emissive power of a grey body is a constant proportion of the power emitted
by the black body. The assumption that the surface behaves as a grey body is valid for most
engineering calculations if the value of emissivity is taken as that for dominant temperature of
the radiation.
The rate of heat transfer by radiation from a hot body at temperature T1 to a cooler one at
temperature T2 is given by;

q
Q
A

 e T1  T2
4 4

q
Q
A

 e T1  T2  T1  T1 T2  T1T2  T2
3 2 2 3

q
= heat transfer coefficient as used in the convective heat transfer (htc)
T1  T2

hr = heat transfer coefficient for radiation

If T1  T2 is very small

hr 
q


e T1  T2
4 4
 
 e T1  T1 T2  T1T2  T2
3 2 2 3

T1  T2 T1  T2

If T1  T2 is very small then T1 and T2 are virtually equal, then

hr  4eT 4 Equation 9

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Example 6:

What is the emissivity of a grey surface, 10m2 in area, which radiates 1000kW at 1500K .
What would be the effect of increasing the temperature to 1600K ?

Solution:
The emissive power

E  1000 1000  100,000W 2

10 m
use equation 8:

E 100,000
e 
T 4

5.67 108 15004 
e  0.348
At 1600K:

E  eT 4  0.348  5.67 108 16004

E  1295kW
It will have an increase of 29.5 percent for a 100-degree K increase in temperature.

Radiation transfer between black surfaces


Q12  A1 F12 T1  T2
4 4

Q12  A2 F12 T
1
4
 T2
4
 Equation 10

A1F12 = A2F21 Equation 11

reprocity relationship or
reciprocal rule

A1, Eb1 area and black body emissive power of surface 1

The fraction of this radiation which arrives at and is totally absorbed by surface 2 is F12 and
the heat transformed is Q12  A1F 12Eb1

Similarly, the radiation leaving surface 2 which arrives at 1 is given by

Q21  A2 F21Eb 2

The net radiation transfer between the 2 surfaces is

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 Q12  Q12  Q21  or Q12  A1 F12 Eb1  A2 F21 Eb 2  A1 F12T14  A2 F21T24

When the 2 surfaces are at the same temperature, T1  T2 , Q12  0

Q12  0  T1  A1 F12  A2 F21 

4
Equation 12

Example 7:
Calculate the view factor, F21 and the net radiation transfer between 2 black surfaces, a
rectangle 2m by 1m (area A1) at 1500K and a disc 1m in diameter (area A2) at 750K, if the view
factor, F12=0.25.

Solution:

A1  2 1  2m2

A2 
 1   0.785m
2
2

4
Use equation 11

A1F12  A2 F21 ; 2  0.25  0.785F21

F21  0.637
Use equation 10

  
Q12  A1 F12 T1  T24  5.67 10 8  2  0.25 1500 4  750 4
4

Q12  5.38 105W or 538kW

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Problem Set
1. Two parallel surfaces each 1.83 x 1.83 m2 are spaced 0.91 m apart. The surface temperature
of A1 is 811K and that of A2 is 533K. Both are black surfaces
A. Calculate the radiant heat transfer between two surfaces (F12=0.41)
B. Do the same as for part A) but for the case where 2 surfaces are connected by non-
conducting reradiating wall (F12=0.69)
C. Repeat part B). but the emissivities of planes 1 and 2 are 0.8 and 0.7, respectively
(so they are not black anymore)

2. A plane surface having an area of 1m2 is insulated on the bottom side and is placed on the
ground exposed to the atmosphere at night. The upper surface is exposed to air at 290K, and
the convective heat transfer coefficient to the air is 12W . The plane radiates to the clear
m2  K
sky. The effective radiation temperature of the sky can be assumed as 80K. If the plane has
emissivity of 0.65. Calculate the temperature of the plane at equilibrium.
3. Two black disks of diameter = 0.61m are placed opposite one another at a distance of 1.22m.
Disk 1 is maintained at 840C and disk 2 at 280C . Calculate the heat flow between the 2 disks
a) when no other surfaces are present, and b) when the two disks are connected by an
adiabatic right cylindrical black surface.
4. The emissivities of two parallel plates are 0.75 and 0.35, respectively. They are maintained at
steady temperature of 47C and 17C , respectively. An aluminum shield of emissivity 0.046 is
employed. Calculate the radiative heat flux per unit area.