TECHNOLOGY

OF METAL
WELDING
Diploma in Metallurgical Engineering
MOHD TAJUDDIN MOHD IDRIS
Fakulti Kejuruteraan & Teknologi Kimia
(FKTK)
SHIELDED METAL
ARC WELDING
(SMAW)
INTRODUCTION
▰ Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) or Stick welding is a process
which melts and joins metals by heating them with an arc between a
coated metal electrode and the workpiece
▰ Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a welding process that uses a
flux-covered metal electrode to carry an electrical current
INTRODUCTION
▰ The electrode core provides most of the weld filler metal
▰ The current forms an arc across the gap between the end of the
electrode and the work
▰ The electric arc creates sufficient heat to melt both the electrode and
the work
▰ Molten metal from the electrode travels across the arc to the molten
pool on the base metal, where they mix together
INTRODUCTION
▰ The end of the electrode and molten pool of metal is surrounded,
purified, and protected by a gaseous cloud and a covering of molten
flux produced as the flux coating of the electrode burns or vaporizes
▰ As the arc moves away, the mixture of molten electrode and base
metal solidifies and becomes one piece
▰ When the electrode is moved along the workpiece at the correct
speed the metal deposits in a uniform layer called a bead
WELDING CURRENT
q The source of heat for arc welding is an electric current. An electric
current is the flow of electrons. Electrons flow through a conductor
from negative (-) to positive (+)
q Resistance to the flow of electrons (electricity) produces heat. The
greater the resistance, the greater the heat. Air has a high resistance to
current flow. As the electrons jump the air gap between the end of the
electrode and the work, a great deal of heat is produced. Electrons
flowing across an air gap produce an arc
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
q Three units are used to describe any electrical current. The three units
are voltage (V), amperage (A), and wattage (W)
q Voltage, or volts (V), is the measurement of electrical pressure. Voltage
controls the maximum gap the electrons can jump to form the arc. A
higher voltage can jump a larger gap. Welding voltage is associated with
the welding arc’s temperature
q Amperage, or amps (A), is the measurement of the total number of
electrons flowing. Amperage controls the size of the arc. Amperage is
associated with the welding arc’s heat
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
q Wattage, or watts (W), is a measurement of
the amount of electrical energy or power in
the arc. Watts are calculated by multiplying
voltage (V) times amperes (A). Figure 2
q Watts are the welding arc’s power or how
much energy the arc is producing. Figure 3

Figure 3

Figure 2
SMA Welding Arc Temperature
q An arc’s temperature is dependent on the voltage, arc length, and the
atmosphere (gas or vapor) it is passing through.
q The arc temperature can range from approximately 5500°F (3000°C)
to more than 36,000°F (20,000°C), but most SMA welding arcs have
effective temperatures of approximately 11,000°F (6100°C).
q The voltage and arc length are closely related because as the arc length
increases, the arc resistance increases; therefore, it takes a higher
voltage (pressure) to keep the electrons flowing (jumping) across the
gap.
q The shorter the arc, the lower the arc’s resistance and the lower the
arc’s voltage and the lower the temperature produced; as the arc
lengthens, the resistance increases, thus causing an increase in the arc
voltage and temperature
SMA Welding Arc Heat
q The amount of heat produced by the arc is determined by the amperage.
The higher the amperage setting, the higher the heat produced by the
welding arc; the lower the amperage setting, the lower the heat
produced.
q Each electrode diameter has a recommended minimum and maximum
amperage range and, therefore, a recommended heat range. If you were
to try to put too many amps through a small diameter electrode, it
would overheat and could even melt.
q If the amperage setting is too low for an electrode diameter, then the
end of the electrode may not melt evenly
q Not all of the heat produced by an arc reaches the weld. Some of the
heat is radiated away in the form of light and heat waves
Types of Welding Currents
▰ The three different types of current used for welding are alternating
current (AC), direct-current electrode negative (DCEN), and direct-
current electrode positive (DCEP)
▰ The terms DCEN and DCEP have replaced the former terms direct-
current straight polarity (DCSP) and direct-current reverse polarity (DCRP)
▰ DCEN and DCSP are the same currents, and DCEP and DCRP are the
same currents.
▰ Some electrodes can be used with only one type of current. Others can
be used with two or more types of current. Each welding current has a
different effect on the weld.
Types of Welding Currents
▰ DCEN (DCSP) In direct-current
electrode negative, the electrode is
negative and the work is positive,
Figure 4. The electrons are leaving the
electrode and traveling across the arc
to the surface of the metal being
welded.
▰ This results in approximately one-third
of the welding heat on the electrode
and two-thirds on the metal being
welded. DCEN welding current
produces a high electrode melting rate Figure 4
Types of Welding Currents
▰ DCEP (DCRP) In direct-current
electrode positive, the electrode is
positive and the work is negative,
Figure 5. The electrons are leaving the
surface of the metal being welded and
traveling across the arc to the
electrode.
▰ This results in approximately two-
thirds of the welding heat on the
electrode and one-third on the metal
being welded
Figure 5
Types of Welding Currents
▰ AC In alternating current, the electrons
change direction every 1/120 of a
second so that the electrode and work
alternate from anode to cathode
▰ The positive side of an electrode arc is
called the anode, and the negative
side is called the cathode. The rapid
reversal of the current flow causes the
welding heat to be evenly distributed
on both the work and the electrode
▰ The even heating gives the weld bead
a balance between penetration and
buildup (Figure 6) Figure 6
Types of Welding Power Supplies (Machines)
▰ Welding power can be supplied as:
○ Constant voltage (CV) – The arc voltage remains constant at the
selected setting even if the arc length and amperage increase or
decrease
○ Rising arc voltage (RAV) – The arc voltage increases as the amperage
increases
○ Constant current (CC) – The total welding current (watts) remains the
same. This type of power is also called drooping arc voltage (DAV)
because the arc voltage decreases as the amperage increases
Welder Accessories
q A number of items must be used with a welding machine to complete
the setup. The major items are the welding cables, the electrode holders,
and the work clamps

Welding Cables
q The terms welding cables and welding leads mean the same thing.
Cables to be used for welding must be flexible, well-insulated, and the
correct size for the job
q Most welding cables are made from stranded copper wire. Some
manufacturers sell a newer type of cable made from aluminum wires
Welder Accessories
Welding Cables
q As electricity flows through a cable, the resistance to the flow causes
the cable to heat up and increase the voltage drop. To minimize the loss
of power and prevent overheating, the electrode cable and work cable
must be the correct size
Electrode Holders
q The electrode holder should be of the proper amperage rating and in
good repair for safe welding. Electrode holders are designed to be used
at their maximum amperage rating or less
q Higher amperage values will cause the holder to overheat and burn up
Welder Accessories
Electrode Holders
q A properly sized electrode holder can overheat if the jaws are dirty or
loose, or if the cable is loose. If the holder heats up, then welding power
is being lost
Welder Accessories
Work Clamps
q The work clamp must be the correct size for the current being used, and
it must clamp tightly to the material. Heat can build up in the work clamp,
reducing welding efficiency, just as was previously described for the
electrode holder.
q In addition to power losses due to poor work lead clamping, a loose
clamp may cause arcing that can damage a part.
q It may be necessary to weld a tab to thick parts so that the work lead
can be clamped to the tab
Welder Accessories
Equipment Setup
q Arc welding machines should be located near the welding site, but far
enough away so that they are not covered with spark showers.
q The machines may be stacked to save space, but there must be enough
room between the machines to ensure the air can circulate and to keep
the machines from overheating
q Power to the machine must be fused, and a power shutoff switch must
be provided. The switch must be located so that it can be reached in an
emergency without touching either the machine or the welding station.
The machine case or frame must be grounded
Start to Weld Using SMAW
Striking the Arc
▰ With the electrode held over the plate, scratch the electrode across the
plate (like striking a large match), Figure 11.
▰ As the arc is established, slightly raise the electrode
to the desired arc length. Hold the arc in one place
until the molten weld pool builds to the desired size.
▰ Slowly lower the electrode as it burns off and move
it forward to start the bead
▰ If the electrode sticks to the plate, quickly squeeze
the electrode holder lever to release the electrode Figure 11
Start to Weld Using SMAW
Striking the Arc
▰ Allow the electrode to briefly cool, and then break it free by bending it
back and forth a few times
▰ Sometimes the flux will break away from
the end of the electrode as the electrode is
broken free from the plate.
▰ Restarting a partially used electrode is
more difficult than restarting a new
electrode, and restarting one with the flux
broken off can be very difficult
Effect of Current Settings
q Each welding electrode must be used in a specified current (amperage)
range for it to operate correctly, Table 1.
q Quality welds cannot be made if the welding current setting is lower or
higher than the manufacturer’s range for any specific electrode type
and diameter

Table 1: Welding Amperage Range

Effect of Current Settings
Too Low of a Current Setting
q Welding with the current set too low
results in poor fusion and poor arc stability
q The weld may have slag or gas inclusions
because the molten weld pool was not fluid
long enough for the flux to react.
q Little or no penetration of the weld into the
base plate may also be evident.
q With the current set too low, the arc length
is very short. A very short arc length results
in frequent shorting and sticking of the
electrode.
Effect of Current Settings
Too High of a Current Setting
q The core wire of the welding electrode is
limited in the amount of current it can carry.
As the current is increased, the wire heats
up because of electrical resistance.
q This preheating of the wire causes some of
the chemicals in the covering to be burned
out too early
q The loss of the proper balance of elements
causes poor arc stability. This condition
leads to spatter, porosity, and slag
inclusions.
Effect of Current Settings
Too High of a Current Setting
q The weld bead made at a high amperage
setting is wider and flatter with deeper
penetration.
q Higher amperage settings can also result in
an increase in the amount of spatter and it
is mostly hard
q Extremely high settings may also cause the
electrode to discolor, crack, glow red, or
burn
Electrode Size and Heat
▰ The selection of the correct size of welding electrode for a weld is
determined by some or all of the following: the skill of the welder, the
thickness of the metal to be welded, the size of the metal, and welding
codes or standards
Smaller diameter
▰ Using smaller diameter electrodes requires less skill than using large
diameter electrodes because the molten weld pool is smaller and easier
to control.
▰ Also, the deposition rate, or the rate that weld metal is added to the
weld, is slower when small diameter electrodes are used. Small
diameter electrodes will make acceptable welds on thick plate, but more
time is required to make the weld.
Electrode Size and Heat
Large diameter
▰ Larger diameter electrodes may overheat
the metal if they are used with thin or
small pieces of metal. To determine if a
weld is too hot, watch the shape of the
trailing edge of the molten weld pool
▰ Rounded ripples indicate the weld is
cooling uniformly and that the heat is not
excessive. If the ripples are pointed, then
the weld is cooling too slowly because of
excessive heat. Extreme overheating can
cause a burnthrough. Once a burnthrough
occurs, it is hard to repair.
Electrode Size and Heat
Overheating Problems
▰ Overheating problems can be corrected by turning down the amperage,
using a shorter arc, traveling at a faster rate, using a chill plate (a large
piece of metal used to absorb excessive heat), or using a smaller
electrode at a lower current setting.
Arc Length
▰ The arc length is the distance the arc must jump from the end of the
electrode to the plate or weld pool surface. As the weld progresses, the
electrode becomes shorter as it is consumed. To maintain a constant
arc length, the electrode must be lowered continuously.
▰ Maintaining a constant arc length is important, because too great a
change in the arc length will adversely affect the weld.
Arc Length
Shorter arc lengths
▰ Shorter arc lengths may cause the
metal transferring across the gap
to short out the electrode, causing
it to stick to the plate. The weld
that results from a short arc is
narrow and has a high buildup,
Arc Length
Long arc lengths
▰ Long arc lengths produce more spatter
because the metal being transferred
may drop outside of the molten weld
pool. The weld is wider and has little
buildup
▰ Finding the correct arc length often
requires some trial and adjustment.
▰ Most welding jobs require an arc length of 1/8 in. (3 mm) to 3/8 in. (10
mm) when using a 1/8 in. (3 mm) electrode, but this distance varies. It
may be necessary to change the arc length when welding to adjust for
varying welding conditions
Travel Angle, Electrode Angle & Work Angle
▰ The terms travel angle and electrode angle both refer to the relationship
between the angle of the electrode as it relates to the direction of weld
travel,
Travel Angle, Electrode Angle & Work Angle
▰ The term work angle refers to the relationship between the center of
the electrode and the surface of the work
▰ The relative angle is important
because there is a jetting force
blowing the metal and flux from
the end of the electrode to the
plate
Travel Angle, Electrode Angle & Work Angle
Leading Angle
▰ A leading electrode angle pushes molten metal and slag ahead of the
weld
▰ The solid metal ahead of the weld
cools and solidifies the molten filler
metal and slag before they can melt
the solid metal. This rapid cooling
prevents the metals from fusing
together,
Travel Angle, Electrode Angle & Work Angle
Leading Angle
▰ As the weld passes over this area, heat from the arc may not melt it. As
a result, some cold lap and slag inclusions are left
▰ The following are suggestions for
preventing cold lap and slag inclusions:
● Use as little leading angle as
possible.
● Ensure that the arc melts the base
metal completely
● Move the arc back and forth across
the molten weld pool to fuse both
edges
Travel Angle, Electrode Angle & Work Angle
Leading Angle
▰ A leading angle can be used to minimize penetration or to help hold
molten metal in place for vertical welds
Travel Angle, Electrode Angle & Work Angle
Trailing Angle
▰ A trailing electrode angle pushes the molten metal away from the
leading edge of the molten weld pool toward the back where it solidifies
▰ As the molten metal is forced away
from the bottom of the weld, the arc
melts more of the base metal, which
results in deeper penetration. The
molten metal pushed to the back of the
weld solidifies and forms reinforcement
for the weld
Travel Angle, Electrode Angle & Work Angle
Trailing Angle

(A) Effect of a trailing angle on weld bead buildup, width, and penetration. (B) As the angle
changes toward the vertical position, (C) the penetration decreases and the weld width
increases
Electrode Manipulation
▰ The movement or weaving of the welding electrode can control the
following characteristics of the weld bead: penetration, buildup, width,
porosity, undercut, overlap, and slag inclusions.
▰ The exact weave pattern for each weld is often the personal choice of
the welder. However, some patterns are especially helpful for specific
welding situations. The pattern selected for a flat (1G) butt joint is not as
critical as the pattern selection for other joints and other positions
▰ Many weave patterns are available for the welder to use. Figure 26
shows 10 different patterns that can be used for most welding
conditions
Electrode Manipulation

Figure 26: Weave patterns

Electrodes
q There are numerous types of electrodes, each manufactured to exacting
standards by companies all over the world. The success (or failure) of
any weld is, to a large degree, dependant on the electrode selected, or
"specified" in the "welding procedure“
q Arc welding electrodes are identified under the AWS numbering system
(American Welding Society)
q The "size" of an electrode is determined by (measuring) the diameter of
the "wire" (the bare section). Common (for general-purpose) sizes:
2.0mm, 2.5mm, 3.15mm and 4mm.
q When specifying an electrode we need to give the "wire-size" and then
the AWS specification
Electrodes
q The most commonly used
electrodes in maintenance and
repair of mild-steel structures are
listed below. There are many other
types of electrodes available for
other types of metals
Electrodes
q E6010 - This electrode is used when welding
with DCEP (Reverse Polarity). This type provides
for deep penetration into thick metal, and can be
used where the parent metal is difficult to clean.
(Dirty, rusty or painted).
q E6011 - This is used for both AC and DC
operations on thick metal
Electrodes
q E6013 - This is a "general-purpose electrode". Is used where the weld
appearance is important and where "medium penetration" is required.
Suitable for both AC and DC
Electrodes
q E7018 - Also known as a "low
hydrogen", this electrode can be
used with AC and DC. This
electrode is used for "high quality"
welds such as needed on pipes.
Low hydrogen electrodes must be
kept DRY as moisture in the flux
will increase the "hydrogen
content" and severely weaken the
weld. These rods must be kept in
a "drying oven" once the pack has
been opened
Where to Look for Electrodes Identification
q Most electrodes, from 2mm up in size, will
have the AWS number printed on the flux at
the "bare-wire end". This identification, as well
as other information, will also be printed on the
"packaging label". In the AWS system an
electrode is given the letter "E" followed by a 4
or a 5 digits numeral
q A typical number is E6013, (but you will
normally only see "6013" on the electrode). "E"
indicates that it is an "electrode"
Where to Look for Electrodes Identification
q The first two numbers of a four-digit number, or the first 3 numbers of
a five-digit number, indicate the "tensile strength" (in "thousands of
pounds per square-inch") of the weld that the electrode will produce. In
other words an "E 60xx" numeral will produce a weld with a tensile-
strength of 60,000 psi
Where to Look for Electrodes Identification
q The second to last digit indicates the welding position, for example
Exx1x is for all positions.
q Exx2x means that the rod is for use in "flat" (down-hand) and
"horizontal position" welding.
Where to Look for Electrodes Identification
q Exx3x means that the rod is only suitable for "flat position" welding.
q The last two digits, in combination with each other, refer to both the
flux composition and the type of current that should be used
Current Type & Coverings

q The
following
"last two
digits" on the
electrode
identification
indicate
Current Type & Coverings
q The current (amp load) supplied to a given electrode is dependent on
the wire diameter. Table - 2 offers a guide to wire size/current setting
range
Identifying Electrodes
Electrodes Classification
 Group of Electrodes
• Fast-freezing electrode
• Produce snappy, deep penetrating arc and fast- freezing
deposit
• Little slag & flat beads
• Most preferred for vertical & overhead welding
• Fill-freezing electrode
• Moderate penetrating arc and freezing rate
• Complete slag coverage + ripples
• Not recommended for vertical & overhead welding
• Fast-fill electrode
• Soft arc & slow deposit rate
• Heavy slag + smooth weld beads
• Recommended for flat position only
Where to Look for Electrodes Identification
q The composition (chemical) of the "flux coating" plays a major part in
the selection of a rod for metals to be welded
q The purpose of the "flux" includes the following:
ü Create a protective gas shield around the arc and the molten
material.
ü Removes impurities from the molten metal.
ü Create a protective layer of "slag" to protect the weld as it cools.
ü Improve the mechanical properties of the weld through the addition
of certain elements.
ü Some fluxes also provide additional "filler material"
Storage of Electrodes
q Electrodes must never be allowed to become "wet". Moisture present in
the atmosphere will render most types of electrodes useless over time.
Some electrodes, notably "low hydrogen" types, cannot be used after
they have been exposed to the air for more than 15 minutes.
q As a rule electrodes are obtained in sealed (airtight) packets that protect
them from the atmosphere.
q As soon as the packet has been opened the electrodes will be at risk of
becoming damp. The correct way to store electrodes, after the packet
has been opened, is in a "warming box" or "drying oven". Such a device
may be as simple as a sealed cupboard with a small electric lamp
burning inside to keep the air warm and dry. More elaborate
"thermostatically controlled" ovens are used in some establishments
Storage of Electrodes
q Using a "damp rod" will result in poor quality of your weld, including
weakness. Damp rods may be "re-dried" by baking in an oven at the
"specified temperature and for a specified time". (See manufacturers'
instructions on packaging)
Summary for Stick - Shielded Metal
Arc Welding (SMAW)
▰ Advantages :
* the low cost of the equipment
* portability
* no need for shielding gas (can use the technique during wind or rain)
* can works on dirty and rusty metals

▰ Disadvantages :
* lower consumable efficiency
* require high operator skill
* take longer time to master the required skills
* difficult to use on thin materials
THANKS!
Any questions?
You can find me at
▰ +6019-5595864
▰ Ruhiyuddin@unimap.edu.my