COEG 304

INSTRUMENTATION AND
CONTROL
Chapter 8

Digital Signal Conditioning

Aayush Bista
• Learn about basic digital circuit needs

• Analog and Digital converters

• Data acquisition systems

SIGNAL The signal shown is analog, what is digital signal?

Raw signal
Conditioned
signal
Why digital signal conditioning? And
what is it?
• The answer to the first question is found in the recognition that
digital electronics and digital computers have taken a major role
in nearly every aspect of life in our modern world.

• Digital electronics is, of course, the foundation of computers,

but it also has many practical uses in our daily lives. Digital
electronics are used in commonplace items like seat-belt
warning systems, motion sensors in security systems, and
automatic door openers in retail establishments.
• All these digital electronic systems require data to be presented
to them in a digital format (i.e., the data have to be digitally
conditioned).

• Digital signal conditioning in process control means finding a

way to represent analog process information in digital format.

• The second question is the topic of this chapter. Digital signal

conditioning in process control means finding a way to
represent analog process information in a digital format.
Why Digital?
• Digital data can be processed and transmitted more efficiently
and reliably than analog data

• Digital has advantage when storage is necessary (Think pen-

drives, CDs instead of classic cassette tapes (analog storage)

• Digital data are much more immune from spurious influences

that would cause subsequent inaccuracy, such as noise,
amplifier gain changes, power supply drifts, and so on.
Perseverance
Communication system of
Perseverance
We are discussing all about
digital signals, but why does
the system that we just saw
(Mars Rover’s)
communication system talk
about Radio Frequency?

Isn’t Radio Frequency a term

describing an analogue
signal?
• Purely digital can be sent over fiber optic lines. One-bit-at-a-time.
• Meaning, that each bit, no matter how fast the transmission can be,
takes a fair amount of time.

• So, in the analog/digital realm, we use a number of techniques to

compress and encode the digital information, and then transport it
via analog RF. There just isn’t anyway around it. Noise is easily
handled on the analog side of the transmission.
Review of Digital Fundamentals
• Digital Information
• The use of digital techniques in process control requires that process
variable measurements and control information be encoded into a
digital form.
• Digital signals themselves are simply two-state (binary) levels. These
levels may be represented in many ways.
Review of Digital Fundamentals
• Positive logic usually specifies 1 as High and 0 as low
Review of Digital Fundamentals
• Binary to Decimal numbers
• Decimal to
Binary numbers
• Hexadecimal and Octal numbers
 Review of Digital Fundamentals
• Boolean Algebra
• Consider a simple example of how a Boolean equation may result
from a practical problem.

The alarm will be triggered when the Boolean variable D goes

to the logic true state. The alarm condition are:
Review of Digital Fundamentals
Converters
• The most important digital tool for the
process-control technologist is one
that translates digital information to
analog and vice versa.
• Most measurements of process
variables are performed by devices
that translate information about the
variable to an analog electrical signal.
Comparator
• The most elementary form of communication between analog and
digital is a device (usually an IC) called a comparator
Comparator
• A process-control system specifies
that temperature should never
exceed 160 °C if the pressure
exceeds 10kPa. Design an alarm
system to detect this condition,
using temperature and pressure
transducers with transfer function
of 2.2mV/°C and 0.2 V/kPa,
respectively.

• Solution:
Converters:
• Main converters for digital signal conditioning are:
1. Analog to Digital Converters (ADCs)
2. Digital to Analog Converters (DACs)
ANALOG TO
DIGITAL
CONVERTER
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
• As discussed previously, most transducers provide analog
signal. So, it is a necessity to convert to digital signal.

Voltage =1V 0000 0001

Please note, that the figure and text may not correlate (for reference purpose only) purposes
Definitions: Sample and Hold
• Sampling is the process of taking a sufficient number of discrete
values at points on a waveform that will define the shape of the
waveform. The more samples you take, the more accurately you can
define a waveform. Sampling converts an analog signal into a series of
impulses, each representing the signal’s amplitude at a given instant
in time.
 The Sampling Theorem
• The sampling theorem states that, in order to representation of the
analog signal, the sampling frequency, fsample, must be at least twice
the highest frequency component fa(max) of the analog signal.
• The frequency fa(max) is known as the Nyquist frequency and is
expressed as:

• In real-world, sampling frequency of 10 times the maximum signal

frequency is adequate to reconstruct the signal from the samples.

• Sampling rate is limited by ADC conversion time limitation in real-

world
• There is a minimum sampling rate in any system that depends
on the nature of the time variation of the sampled variable.

• Simply put, samples must be taken at a high enough rate so that

the signal can be reconstructed from the samples. There are
serious consequences to sampling at too small a rate.

• For example, the control system will not be able to correct

variations of the controlled variable that are missed because too
few samples were taken.
• The sampling rate of Figure 33b is much
too slow, because little information about
the actual signal variation is contained in the
reconstruction from the samples.

• For Figure 33c, the signal seems to possess

a frequency of variation that is not in fact
present in the actual signal. This is called
aliasing, and it is one consequence of too
small a sampling rate.
Definition: Quantization
• The process of converting an
analog value to a code is called
quantization. During the
quantization process, the ADC
converts each sampled value of
the analog signal to a binary code.

• The more bits that are used to

represent a sampled value, the
more accurate is the
representation.
Let’s say, the original signal is an analog signal;
Reconstructed signal will look closely to the original signal when the number of bits increases
Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs)
• The transfer function of the ADC can be as:

Digital data o/p:

Resolution
Resolution is defined as the 𝒊𝒏
smallest incremental voltage 𝒐𝒖𝒕
that can be recognized and
thus causes a change in the Where Dout is in decimal
digital output
• Arduino Uno is built of 10 bits.
What is its resolution and number
of quantization levels?
https://blog-c7ff.kxcdn.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Blog-Featured-Image.png
Types of Analog to Digital
Converters (ADCs)
1. Successive approximate type (We will study only
this type here)
2. Flash type
3. Digital ramp
4. Dual-Slope ramp type
Successive Approximation ADC
• 4-bit Successive Approximation ADC Example
• To grasp the concept, consider a 4-bit ADC with a
sampling rate i.e Vin to be 11.2 Volts. We take the
comparator reference voltage as 16 Volts.
• Whenever the new transformation begins, the
successive approximation register sets the most
significant bit to 1 and all others to zero.
• As the register is followed by the DAC, the input to the
DAC is 1000. So the output voltage of the DAC
corresponding to the stated digital code and reference
voltage of 16 turns out to be 8V (Check the next slide
on how it is achieved)
• Given bit= (1000)2, Vref = 16V

• Analog output=
=16/2 = 8V

• This is the threshold voltage to which the input voltage will be

compared. Thus, the output voltage of the comparator will
change the output value of the successive register.
• When Vdac < Vin
• If the output voltage of DAC is lesser than the
input voltage, then the most significant bit remains
intact and the next bit will be changed to 1 for new
comparison.
• When Vdac > Vin
• On the other hand, if the output DAC voltage is
greater than the input voltage then the MSB is
transformed to zero, but the next bit is pulled high
for the new comparison.
Definition: Conversion Time
• It is the time needed by analog to digital converter to
completely convert continuous signals to digital signals.

• The conversion time is based on the number of bits because the

N number of bits takes N number of clock cycles.

• Each bit iteration takes one cycle. So, the general conversion
time formula is
Definition: Conversion Speed
• The speed with which the conversion of the signal takes place is
called conversion speed.

• Successive Approximation ADC typical conversion speed is

between 2-10 Mega Samples Per Second. (MSPS).

• This type of ADC is commonly used in microcontrollers

• Advantages
• They output the binary representation serially.
• They are highly accurate due to their high-resolution power.
• Successive Approximation ADCs are reliable and power
effective.
• Disadvantages
• As the resolution increases, the ADC slows down.
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER
Digital to Analog Controllers (DAC)
• A DAC accepts digital information and transforms it into an
analog voltage. The digital information is in the form of a binary
number with some fixed number of digits.

• Especially when used in connection with a computer, this

binary number is called a binary word or computer word. The
digits are called bits of the word. Thus, an 8-bit word would be a
binarynumber having eight digits 10000111
Alternative formula
Types of DAC
1. Binary weighted
2. R/2R ladder
Binary weighted DAC

This circuit can be drawn as the circuit in the next slide

• If bk=1, Vk=bkVref, else Vk=0 where: k={1,2,3,4}
• i1= V1/2R….when MSB (b1) is high and other are low
• i2= V2/4R….when (b2) is high and other are low
• i3= V3/8R….when (b3) is high and other are low
• i4= V4/16R….when LSB (b4) is high and other are low
Then total current i=i1+i2+i3+i4 (Due to the law of superposition
in circuit theorem)

𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 𝑽𝟒
i= +
𝑹 𝟐𝟏 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟑 𝟐𝟒
• Now using KCL at the virtual node:

• i= (

• Vo = + =- +

𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝟏
𝟏
+ 𝟐
𝟐
+ 𝟑
𝟑
+ 𝟒
𝟒
)

• (Negative sign at the output can be removed by using one more inverting
amplifier)

 Thus the circuit is able to convert digital values to analog

• Biggest drawback is the large difference in between LSB and MSB resistor
values
Vref = 10V
DATA ACQUISTION SYSTEMS
Data acquisition systems (DAS)
• Data acquisition is the recognized name for the branch of
engineering dealing with collecting information from a number
of analogue sources and converting it to digital form suitable
for transmission to a computer, printer or alphanumeric display.

 Elements of a data acquisition system

• Sensors or transducers are devices which convert the quantity
which is to be measured (measurand) into a proportional
electrical signal. This signal is an analogue of the measurand.
• Signal conditioning includes all the devices which convert the
signal from the sensor to the correct level for the ATD (analogue
to digital converter). It includes amplifiers, filters, and a.c. to
d.c. converters.

• Anti-aliasing filters are used to remove high-frequency signals

which cannot be accurately converted.

• A sample and hold circuit is used before the multiplexer to

sample several signal channels simultaneously or before the
ATD to prevent the input to it changing while conversion is
taking place.
• The multiplexer (MUX) is a selector switch connecting one channel
at a time to the ATD. It may be electromechanical or completely
electronic.

• The analogue to digital converter (ATD) is the heart of the system

which converts analog data to digital. Many designs exist and it is
important to choose one which is suited to the application.

• The clock is the source of all the timing pulses needed to operate the
units in the correct sequence. It can be an independent clock or the
control is by the computer clock. Instead of taking samples at
regular intervals, it is straightforward to take a sample (or samples)
every time a certain event occurs, such as every time a product
comes off the production line.
• Random access memory (RAM) is used for the temporary
storage of data. The system may utilize the RAM in the
computer or RAM may be built into the acquisition system to
take data from the converter, and hold it until the printer or
computer is ready for it.

• A digital to analogue converter (D/A) may be driven by the

computer if an analogue output is required as in a control
system.

• An interface is a circuit to connect one element to another, and

in particular to connect an A/D or a D/A to a microprocessor
bus.
• A bus comprises a number of wires carrying related signals and
each connected to several devices. As a bus links several units of
a system, some standardization is necessary.

• Sometimes, the computer can use the DAS to “supervise and

control” some industrial process (As shown in Figure 15) which
is termed as Supervisory control and data acquisition systems
(SCADA)
Hierarchical Control
• Not all DASs require a computer or a recorder

• https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/earthquake-
hazards/science/seismographs-keeping-track-earthquakes?qt-
science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
• Most data loggers come with their own software.
• NI Data loggers can be interfaced with Labview
Ardunio can also be used to make a simple data-logger
• Real data loggers are little complex
(Eg. NI Datalogger)
APPLICATIONS
Data acquisition for angular position detection using
Simulink

Cable USB cable

Potentiometer Arduino Simulink

SENSOR HARDWARE COMPUTER

Components:
1. Potentiometer-1kΩ
2. Arduino Uno
3. USB cable and other cables
 REFERENCES
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• https://www.ee.iitb.ac.in/~sequel/course_material.html
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