m&Sf Short Answers

---
### **Unit-I: Greatest Common Divisor and Related Topics**
1. **Define Greatest common divisor (GCD).**

The GCD of two integers is the largest integer that divides both numbers without leaving a
remainder.
2. **Find GCD of 28 and 36 by using the method of factors.**

- Factors of 28: \( 1, 2, 4, 7, 14, 28 \).
- Factors of 36: \( 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36 \).
- Common factors: \( 1, 2, 4 \).
- GCD = 4.
3. **Find GCD of 18 and 24 by using the method of prime factorization.**

- Prime factors of 18: \( 2 \times 3^2 \).
- Prime factors of 24: \( 2^3 \times 3 \).
- Common factors: \( 2 \times 3 = 6 \).
- GCD = 6.
4. **State the Euclidean algorithm of GCD.**

The Euclidean algorithm computes GCD by repeated division:
\( GCD(a, b) = GCD(b, a \mod b) \), until \( b = 0 \).
5. **Find the H.C.F of 126, 162, and 180 using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.**
- Prime factors of 126: \( 2 \times 3^2 \times 7 \).
- Prime factors of 162: \( 2 \times 3^4 \).
- Prime factors of 180: \( 2^2 \times 3^2 \times 5 \).
- Common factors: \( 2 \times 3^2 \).
- HCF = 18.
6. **Define Fermat numbers.**

Fermat numbers are of the form \( F_n = 2^{2^n} + 1 \), where \( n \geq 0 \).
7. **Define congruences.**
Congruence refers to equivalence modulo \( m \):
\( a \equiv b \ (\text{mod } m) \) if \( m \) divides \( (a - b) \).
8. **Explain the congruence equation \( a = b (\text{mod } m) \).**

\( a \equiv b (\text{mod } m) \) means \( a = b + km \), where \( k \) is an integer.
9. **Define Linear congruences.**

A linear congruence is an equation of the form \( ax \equiv b (\text{mod } m) \).
10. **Prime factorization of 460 using the division method.**

\( 460 \div 2 = 230 \), \( 230 \div 2 = 115 \), \( 115 \div 5 = 23 \) (prime).
Prime factors: \( 2^2 \times 5 \times 23 \).
---
### **Unit-II: Correlation, Regression, and Probability**
1. **Define Correlation.**
Correlation measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.
2. **Define Regression coefficients.**

Regression coefficients represent the slope of the regression line, showing the change in
the dependent variable for a unit change in the independent variable.
3. **Define fitting of Least squares.**

The least squares method minimizes the sum of squared differences between observed
and predicted values in regression analysis.
4. **Define Random variable.**

A random variable assigns numerical values to the outcomes of a random experiment.
5. **Define Discrete Random variable.**

A discrete random variable takes on a countable number of distinct values.
6. **What is Mathematical Expectation?**

The mathematical expectation (or expected value) is the weighted average of all possible
values of a random variable.
7. **Given \( P(a \leq x \leq 1) = \frac{19}{81} \), find \( a \).**

Integrate \( f(x) = x^2 \) over \( [a, 1] \):
\( \int_a^1 x^2 dx = \frac{19}{81} \). Solve to find \( a \).
8. **Define Binomial Distribution.**

A binomial distribution describes the number of successes in \( n \) independent trials,
each with success probability \( p \).
9. **Show that the mean and variance are equal for Poisson distribution.**
For a Poisson distribution, \( \mu = \lambda \) and \( \sigma^2 = \lambda \), so mean =
variance = \( \lambda \).
10. **If the mean of a Poisson distribution is 1.8, find \( P(x = 5) \).**
Use \( P(x = k) = \frac{e^{-\lambda} \lambda^k}{k!} \).
Substituting \( \lambda = 1.8 \), \( k = 5 \).
---
### **Unit-III: Distributions and Sampling**
1. **Define Normal Distribution.**

A normal distribution is a symmetric bell-shaped distribution defined by its mean and
variance.
2. **Define Central Limit Theorem.**

The CLT states that the sampling distribution of the sample mean approaches a normal
distribution as the sample size increases.
3. **Write the uses of Normal Distribution.**

- Modeling natural phenomena.
- Statistical inference.
- Quality control.
4. **Define Sampling distribution.**

A sampling distribution is the probability distribution of a statistic computed from a sample.
5. **Properties of \( t \)-distribution and \( F \)-distribution.**

- \( t \)-distribution: Symmetric, heavier tails than normal.
- \( F \)-distribution: Skewed, non-negative values.
6. **Define Random Sampling method.**

Random sampling selects elements from a population where each has an equal chance of
being chosen.
7. **Define population and sample.**

- Population: Entire set of elements.
- Sample: Subset of the population.
8. **Define Finite and Infinite Population.**

- Finite: Limited number of elements.
- Infinite: Countless elements.
9. **Find the finite population correction factor for \( n = 10 \) and \( N = 100 \).**
Correction factor: \( \sqrt{\frac{N - n}{N - 1}} \).
10. **In which distribution are mean, median, and mode equal?**
Normal distribution.
---
### **Unit-IV: Hypothesis Testing**
1. **Define Unbiased Estimator.**

An estimator is unbiased if its expected value equals the parameter it estimates.
2. **What is the formula for maximum error?**

Maximum error = \( z \cdot \frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}} \), where \( z \) is the z-score.
3. **Define Null hypothesis and Alternative hypothesis.**

- Null hypothesis (\( H_0 \)): No effect or difference.
- Alternative hypothesis (\( H_a \)): Effect or difference exists.
4. **Explain Type I and Type II error.**

- Type I: Rejecting \( H_0 \) when it is true.
- Type II: Failing to reject \( H_0 \) when it is false.
5. **What is meant by level of significance?**

The probability of rejecting \( H_0 \) when it is true, denoted by \( \alpha \).
6. **Write the confidence interval for true mean.**

\( \bar{x} \pm z \cdot \frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}} \).
7. **Explain the procedure generally followed in testing hypotheses.**

- Define \( H_0 \) and \( H_a \).
- Choose \( \alpha \).
- Calculate the test statistic.
- Compare with the critical value.
- Make a decision.
8. **What is the test statistic for large samples?**

Z-test.
9. **What is the test statistic for small samples?**

T-test.
10. **Differentiate two-tailed and one-tailed tests.**

- One-tailed: Tests for a specific direction.
- Two-tailed: Tests for any difference.
---
### **Unit-V: Stochastic Processes**
1. **Define stochastic process.**

A stochastic process is a collection of random variables indexed by time or space.
Example: Stock prices.
2. **Define deterministic and non-deterministic stochastic processes.**

- Deterministic: Future states are fully determined by current states.
- Non-deterministic: Contains randomness.
3. **Define transition matrix.**

A transition matrix describes probabilities of moving from one state to another in a Markov
process.
4. **Define Markov process.**

A stochastic process where future states depend only on the current state.
5. **Define Markov Chain.**
A sequence of random states with the Markov property.
6. **Define Stochastic matrix.**

A matrix where rows represent probability distributions, summing to 1.
7. **Define Regular matrix.**

A stochastic matrix where some power has all positive entries.
8. **Define an Absorbing Markov Chain.**

A Markov chain with at least one absorbing state.
9. **Define probability vector.**

A vector whose entries are non-negative and sum to 1.
10. **Test if the following matrix is stochastic:**
\[
\begin{bmatrix}
1/3 & 2/3 & 4/3 \\
1/2 & 1 & 1/2
\end{bmatrix}
\]
**Not stochastic** because row sums do not equal 1.

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---

### **Unit-I: Greatest Common Divisor and Related Topics**

1. **Define Greatest common divisor (GCD).**

2. **Find GCD of 28 and 36 by using the method of factors.**

3. **Find GCD of 18 and 24 by using the method of prime factorization.**

4. **State the Euclidean algorithm of GCD.**

6. **Define Fermat numbers.**

8. **Explain the congruence equation \( a = b (\text{mod } m) \).**

9. **Define Linear congruences.**

10. **Prime factorization of 460 using the division method.**

### **Unit-II: Correlation, Regression, and Probability**

2. **Define Regression coefficients.**

3. **Define fitting of Least squares.**

4. **Define Random variable.**

5. **Define Discrete Random variable.**

6. **What is Mathematical Expectation?**

7. **Given \( P(a \leq x \leq 1) = \frac{19}{81} \), find \( a \).**

8. **Define Binomial Distribution.**

### **Unit-III: Distributions and Sampling**

1. **Define Normal Distribution.**

2. **Define Central Limit Theorem.**

3. **Write the uses of Normal Distribution.**

4. **Define Sampling distribution.**

5. **Properties of \( t \)-distribution and \( F \)-distribution.**

6. **Define Random Sampling method.**

7. **Define population and sample.**

8. **Define Finite and Infinite Population.**

### **Unit-IV: Hypothesis Testing**

1. **Define Unbiased Estimator.**

2. **What is the formula for maximum error?**

3. **Define Null hypothesis and Alternative hypothesis.**

4. **Explain Type I and Type II error.**

5. **What is meant by level of significance?**

6. **Write the confidence interval for true mean.**

7. **Explain the procedure generally followed in testing hypotheses.**

8. **What is the test statistic for large samples?**

9. **What is the test statistic for small samples?**

10. **Differentiate two-tailed and one-tailed tests.**

### **Unit-V: Stochastic Processes**

1. **Define stochastic process.**

2. **Define deterministic and non-deterministic stochastic processes.**

3. **Define transition matrix.**

4. **Define Markov process.**

6. **Define Stochastic matrix.**

7. **Define Regular matrix.**

8. **Define an Absorbing Markov Chain.**

9. **Define probability vector.**

10. **Test if the following matrix is stochastic:**

**Not stochastic** because row sums do not equal 1.

You might also like

### Unit-I: Greatest Common Divisor and Related Topics

1. Define Greatest common divisor (GCD).

2. Find GCD of 28 and 36 by using the method of factors.

3. Find GCD of 18 and 24 by using the method of prime factorization.

4. State the Euclidean algorithm of GCD.

6. Define Fermat numbers.

8. Explain the congruence equation \( a = b (\text{mod } m) \).

9. Define Linear congruences.

10. Prime factorization of 460 using the division method.

### Unit-II: Correlation, Regression, and Probability

2. Define Regression coefficients.

3. Define fitting of Least squares.

4. Define Random variable.

5. Define Discrete Random variable.

6. What is Mathematical Expectation?

7. Given \( P(a \leq x \leq 1) = \frac{19}{81} \), find \( a \).

8. Define Binomial Distribution.

### Unit-III: Distributions and Sampling

1. Define Normal Distribution.

2. Define Central Limit Theorem.

3. Write the uses of Normal Distribution.

4. Define Sampling distribution.

5. Properties of \( t \)-distribution and \( F \)-distribution.

6. Define Random Sampling method.

7. Define population and sample.

8. Define Finite and Infinite Population.

### Unit-IV: Hypothesis Testing

1. Define Unbiased Estimator.

2. What is the formula for maximum error?

3. Define Null hypothesis and Alternative hypothesis.

4. Explain Type I and Type II error.

5. What is meant by level of significance?

6. Write the confidence interval for true mean.

7. Explain the procedure generally followed in testing hypotheses.

8. What is the test statistic for large samples?

9. What is the test statistic for small samples?

10. Differentiate two-tailed and one-tailed tests.

### Unit-V: Stochastic Processes

1. Define stochastic process.

2. Define deterministic and non-deterministic stochastic processes.

3. Define transition matrix.

4. Define Markov process.

6. Define Stochastic matrix.

7. Define Regular matrix.

8. Define an Absorbing Markov Chain.

9. Define probability vector.

10. Test if the following matrix is stochastic:

Not stochastic because row sums do not equal 1.