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Function and algorithm

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habibulislamruddro
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2 views

Function and algorithm

Uploaded by

habibulislamruddro
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Arranged by: Nikhat Rejoana Sadia

 A function or mapping (Defined as f:X→Y) is a


relationship from elements of one set X to
elements of another set Y (X and Y are non-
empty sets). X is called Domain and Y is
called Co-domain of function ‘f’.
 Suppose that to each element of a set A we
assign a unique element of a set B; the collection
of such assignments is called a function from A
into B. The set A is called the domain of the
function, and the set B is called the target set or
codomain.
 Functions are ordinarily denoted by symbols. For
example, let f denote a function from A into B.
Then we write f : A → B which is read: “f is a
function from A into B,” or “f takes (or maps) A
into B.” If a ∈ A, then f (a) (read: “f of a”) denotes
the unique element of B which f assigns to a; it is
called the image of a under f, or the value of f at
a.
 f (x) = x^2 or x → x^2 or y = x^2
 In the first notation, x is called a variable and
the letter f denotes the function. In the
second notation, the barred arrow → is read
“goes into.” In the last notation, x is called
the independent variable and y is called the
dependent variable since the value of y will
depend on the value of x
 A function f:A→B is injective or one-to-one
function if for every b∈B, there exists at most
one a∈A such that f(s)=t.
 This means a function f is injective if a1≠a2
 implies f(a1)≠f(a2).
Example:
 f:N→N,f(x)=5x is injective.

 f:N→N,f(x)=x^2
 is injective.
 f:R→R,f(x)=x^2
 is not injective as (−x)^2=x^2
 A function f:A→B is surjective (onto) if the
image of f equals its range. Equivalently, for
every b∈B, there exists some a∈A such that
f(a)=b. This means that for any y in B, there
exists some x in A such that y=f(x).
Example:
 f:N→N,f(x)=x+2is surjective.
 f:R→R,f(x)=x^2
 is not surjective since we cannot find a real
number whose square is negative.
 A function f : A → B is said to be one-to-one if
different elements in the domain A have distinct
images. Another way of saying the same thing is that
f is one-to-one if f (a) = f (a′) implies a = a′.
 A function f : A → B is said to be an onto function if
each element of B is the image of some element of A.
 In other words, f : A → B is onto if the image of f is
the entire codomain, i.e., if f (A) = B. In such a case
we say that f is a function from A onto B or that f
maps A onto B.
 A function f : A → B is invertible if its inverse relation
f −1 is a function from B to A. In general, the inverse
 Theorem 3.1: A function f : A → B is invertible if and
only if f is both one-to-one and onto.
• f1 is one-to-one since no element of B is the image of more
than one element of A.
•Similarly, f2 is one-to-one. However, neither f3 nor f4 is one-to-
one since f3(r) = f3(u) and f4(v) = f4(w)
•As far as being onto is concerned, f2 and f3 are both onto
functions since every element of C is the image under f2 of some
element of B and every element of D is the image under f3 of
some element of C, f2(B) = C and f3(C) = D.
 On the other hand, f1 is not onto since 3 ∈ B is
not the image under any element of A. and f4 is
not onto since x ∈ E is not the image under f4 of
any element of D.
 Thus f1 is one-to-one but not onto, f3 is onto
but not one-to-one and f4 is neither one-to-one
nor onto.
 However, f2 is both one-to-one and onto, i.e., is
a one-to-one correspondence between A and B.
Hence f2 is
 invertible and f −1
 2 is a function from C to B.
 ⌊x⌋, called the floor of x, denotes the
greatest integer that does not exceed x.
 ⌈x⌉, called the ceiling of x, denotes the least
integer that is not less than x.
 If x is itself an integer, then ⌊x⌋ = ⌈x⌉;
otherwise ⌊x⌋ + 1 = ⌈x⌉. For example,
 ⌊3.14⌋ = 3, ⌊√5⌋= 2, ⌊−8.5⌋ = −9, ⌊7⌋ = 7,
⌊−4⌋ = −4, ⌈3.14⌉ = 4,⌈√5⌉= 3, ⌈−8.5⌉ =
−8, ⌈7⌉ = 7, ⌈−4⌉ = −4
 Let k be any integer and let M be a positive integer.
Then k (mod M) (read: k modulo M) will denote the
integer remainder when k is divided by M. More
exactly, k (mod M) is the unique integer r such that k
= Mq + r where 0 ≤ r < M
 When k is positive, simply divide k by M to obtain the
remainder r. Thus 25 (mod 7) = 4, 25 (mod 5) = 0,
35 (mod 11) = 2, 3 (mod 8) = 3
 If k is negative, divide |k| by M to obtain a remainder
r′; then k (mod M) = M − r′ when r′ = 0. Thus −26
(mod 7) = 7 − 5 = 2, −371 (mod 8) = 8 − 3 = 5, −39
(mod 3) = 0
 The term “mod” is also used for the mathematical
congruence relation, which is denoted and defined as
follows: a ≡ b (mod M) if any only if M divides b − a.
 Logarithms are related to exponents as
follows. Let b be a positive number. The
logarithm of any positive number x to be the
base b, written logb x represents the
exponent to which b must be raised to obtain
x. That is, y = logb x and by = x are
equivalent statements. Accordingly,
 log2 8 = 3 since 23 = 8; log10 100 = 2 since
102 = 100
 log2 64 = 6 since 26 = 64; log10 0.001 = −3
since 10−3 = 0.001
 Suppose M is an algorithm, and suppose n is the size
of the input data. Clearly the complexity f (n) of M
increases as n increases. It is usually the rate of
increase of f (n) that we want to examine. This is
usually done by comparing f (n) with some standard
function, such as log n, n, n log n, n2, n3, 2n
 The rates of growth for these standard functions are
indicated in Fig. 3-7, which gives their approximate
values for certain values of n. Observe that the
functions are listed in the order of their rates of
growth: the logarithmic function log2 n grows most
slowly, the exponential function 2^n grows most
rapidly, and the polynomial functions n^c grow
according to the exponent c.

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