BASICS OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES

PH101, L-T-P: 2-0-3, Maximum: 26 Lectures

RELATIONSHIPS OF BIOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYS LEADING TO
SECONDARY CONSTITUENTS IN PLANTS
 MEDICINAL PLANT EXTRACTS
Extraction, as the term is used pharmaceutically, involves the separation of
medicinally active portions of plant or animal tissues from the inactive or inert
components by using selective solvents in standard extraction procedures.

The products so obtained from plants are relatively impure liquids, semisolids
etc. intended only for oral or external use. These include classes of preparations
known as decoctions, infusions, fluid extracts, tinctures, pilular (semisolid)
extract.
Factors Affecting the Choice of Extraction
Nature of the Crude Drug
The choice to use maceration or percolation primarily depends upon the nature and
characteristics of the crude drugs to be extracted. Therefore, knowledge of the type
of organs and tissues of the plant matter is essential for achieving the best result.

Stability of the Crude Drug

Continuous hot extraction procedures should be avoided when constituents of the
drug are thermolabile.

Cost of the Crude Drug

When the crude drug is expensive (e.g. ginger), it is desirable to obtain complete
extraction. Therefore, from the economic point of view, lower efficiency,
percolation should be used. For inexpensive drugs, maceration, despite its lower
efficiency, is acceptable in view of its lower cost.
Solvent
Selection of the solvent depends on the solubility of the desired components of the
material.

Concentration of the Product

Dilute products such as tinctures can be made by maceration or percolation. For
semi-concentrated preparations, the more efficient percolation process is used.
Concentrated preparations, such as liquid or dry extracts, are made by percolation.

Recovery of Solvent
Solvent is preferably recovered under reduced pressure to save thermolabile
constituents.
 Quality Assurance: The Extraction Process and Solvent
The type of extraction procedure also plays a decisive role in determining the
qualitative and quantitative composition of the extract.

Some important points regarding the quality of the extracts need to be considered:

i) The more exhaustive the extraction, the better is the yield of the constituents from
the herbal drugs.

ii) If maceration is facilitated by stirring and by use of comminuted material, the

additional stirring and shearing forces may lead to better extraction.

iii) Other factors determining the quality of the extracts are extraction time,
temperature and solvent volume.
iv) Some drugs (e.g. Hypericum spp.) are extracted very slowly so that exhaustive extraction can
only be achieved by percolation or multistage motion extraction. In many cases, the transfer of
quality-relevant constituents from the herbal drugs to the extract (i.e. extraction rate) can be
considerably improved by raising the temperature. Hypericin, pseudohypericin and biapigenin are
extracted better at higher temperature and with longer extraction times.

v) The quality of the extracts and the spectrum of constituents obtained by maceration or digestion
(i.e. maceration at higher temperature) are also influenced by the ratio of herbal drug to solvent.
The quantity of extracted matter increases with the volume of extraction solvent. For example,
maceration of Salvia officinalis flowers achieves almost exhaustive extraction and thus the full
spectrum of constituents obtained with percolation can be achieved with a drug:solvent ratio of
1:20.

vi) The composition of an herbal extract depends on the type, concentration and elution strength
of the solvent. The spectrum of constituents may vary considerably depending on the hydrophilic
or lipophilic nature of the solvent.
 GENERAL METHODS OF EXTRACTION OF
MEDICINAL PLANTS
Maceration

In this process, the whole or coarsely powdered crude drug is placed in a

stoppered container with the solvent and allowed to stand at room temperature
for a period of at least 3 days with frequent agitation until the soluble matter
has dissolved. The mixture then is strained, the marc (the damp solid material)
is pressed, and the combined liquids are clarified by filtration or decantation
after standing.
Infusion
Fresh infusions are prepared by macerating the crude drug for a short period of time
with cold or boiling water. These are dilute solutions of the readily soluble
constituents of crude drugs.
Digestion
This is a form of maceration in which gentle heat is used during the process of
extraction. It is used when moderately elevated temperature is not objectionable.
The solvent efficiency of the menstruum is thereby increased.
Decoction
In this process, the crude drug is boiled in a specified volume of water for a defined
time; it is then cooled and strained or filtered. This procedure is suitable for
extracting water-soluble, heat-stable constituents. This process is typically used in
preparation of Ayurvedic extracts called “quath” or “kawath”. The starting ratio of
crude drug to water is fixed, e.g. 1:4 or 1:16; the volume is then brought down to
one-fourth its original volume by boiling during the extraction procedure. Then, the
concentrated extract is filtered and used as such or processed further.
Percolation
This is the procedure used most frequently to extract active ingredients in the
preparation of tinctures and fluid extracts. A percolator is generally used:

1). The solid ingredients are moistened with an appropriate amount of the
specified menstruum and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h in a well closed
container, after which the mass is packed and the top of the percolator is closed.
Additional menstruum is added to form a shallow layer above the mass, and the
mixture is allowed to macerate in the closed percolator for 24 h. The outlet of the
percolator then is opened and the liquid contained therein is allowed to drip slowly.
Additional menstruum is added as required, until the percolate measures about
three-quarters of the required volume of the finished product.
The marc is then pressed and the expressed liquid is added to the percolate.
Sufficient menstruum is added to produce the required volume, and the mixed liquid
is clarifi ed by fi ltration or by standing followed by decanting.
Hot Continuous Extraction (Soxhlet)
In this method, the finely ground crude drug is placed in a porous bag or “thimble”
made of strong filter paper, which is placed in chamber of the Soxhlet apparatus.

The extracting solvent in flask is heated, and its vapors condense in condenser. The
condensed extractant drips into the thimble containing the crude drug, and extracts
it by contact. When the level of liquid in chamber rises to the top of siphon tube, the
liquid contents of chamber siphon into flask. This process is continuous and is
carried out until a drop of solvent from the siphon tube does not leave residue when
evaporated. The advantage of this method, compared to previously described
methods, is that large amounts of drug can be extracted with a much smaller
quantity of solvent. This effects tremendous economy in terms of time, energy and
consequently financial inputs. At small scale, it is employed as a batch process only,
but it becomes much more economical and viable when converted into a continuous
extraction procedure on medium or large scale.
EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OIL
Derived from one or more plant parts

2. SOURCES OF ESSENTIAL OIL:

Family-specific plant tissues responsible for producing or storing essential oil
From the practical standpoint, they can be categorized into superficial and
subcutaneous oils. Based on the currently available information, it may be
inferred that oils of the Labiatae, Verbenaceae and Geraniaceae families are
the only superficial oils known; consequently, the others are considered
subcutaneous oils.

FACTOR AFFECTING QUANTITY & QUALITY OF OIL:

During handling, some flowers continue to produce aroma while other quickly
loose their odor. Flowers collected at different times may also give different
perfumery values. Regarding the rose, half-open flowers with plump anthers give
higher oil yield than fully opened flowers with shrivelled anthers.

Humidity, wind, rain and surface temperature also affect the oil yield
considerably.
Harvesting schedule affects both quantity and quality of the oil.
 Among these, the oxygenated compounds
(alcohols, esters, aldehydes, ketones,
lactones,phenols) are the principal odor source.
They are more stable against oxidizing and
resinifying influences than other constituents.

3. CHEMICAL CONSISTUTENTS:

Unsaturated constituents like monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes have the

tendency to oxidize or resinify in the presence of air and light.
4. METHODS OF PRODUCING ESSENTIAL OIL :
 4.1 HYDRODISTILLATION
The aromatic plant material is packed in a still and a sufficient quantity of water is
added and brought to a boil; alternatively, live steam is injected into the plant
charge. Due to the influence of hot water and steam, the essential oil is freed from
the oil glands in the plant tissue.
The vapor mixture of water and oil is condensed by indirect cooling with water.
From the condenser, distillate flows into a separator, where oil separates
automatically from the distillate water.
HYDRODIFFUSION HYDROLYSIS DECOMPOSITION BY
HEAT

Diffusion of essential oils Chemical reaction between Almost all constituents of

and hot water through water and certain constituents of essential oils are unstable at
plant membranes essential oils. high temperature.

In steam distillation, the

steam does not actually Esters are constituents of To obtain the best quality
oil, distillation must be done
penetrate the dry cell essential oils. at low temperatures.
membranes.

The temperature in steam

4.1.2 MECHANISM
Dry plant material can be exhaustedOF HYDRODISTILLATION
In the presence
with dry steam only when all the
of water, especially at distillation is determined
volatile oil has been freed from the
high temperatures, they tend to react entirely by the operating
oil-bearing cells by first thorough with water to form acids and alcohols. pressure.
comminution of the plant material.

whereas in water
But, when the plant material is soaked with distillation and in water
water, exchange of vapors within the tissue is and steam distillation the
based on their permeability while in swollen operating pressure is
condition
usually atmospheric.

At the temperature of boiling water, a part of

volatile oil dissolves in the water present within
the glands, and

This oil-water solution permeates, by osmosis, the swollen

membranes and finally reaches the outer surface, where
the oil is vaporized by passing steam.
 4.1.3 TYPES OF HYDRODISTILLATION
1. Water distillation
2. Water and steam distillation
3. Direct steam distillation

4.1.3.1WATER DISTILLATION

In this method, the material is completely immersed in water,which is boiled by

applying heat by direct fire, steam jacket, closed steam jacket, closed steam coil or
open steam coil. The main characteristic of this process is that there is direct contact
between boiling water and plant material.
When the still is heated by direct fire, adequate precautions are necessary to prevent
the charge from overheating. When a steam jacket or closed steam coil is used, there
is less danger of overheating; with open steam coils this danger is avoided.

But with open steam, care must be taken to prevent accumulation of condensed water
within the still. Therefore, the still should be well insulated.

The plant material in the still must be agitated as the water boils, otherwise
agglomerations of dense material will settle on the bottom and become thermally
degraded

Before any field distillation is done, a small-scale water distillation in glassware should
be performed to observe whether any changes take place during the distillation
process. From this laboratory trial, the yield of oil from a known weight of the plant
material can be determined
ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE
Permits processing of finely powdered material or Complete extraction is not possible. Besides, certain
plant parts that, by contact with live steam, would esters are partly hydrolyzed and sensitive
otherwise form lumps through which the steam substances like aldehydes tend to polymerize.
cannot penetrate. Other

Stills are inexpensive, easy to construct and Greater number of stills, more space and
suitable for field operation more fuel

High-boiling and water-soluble oil constituents cannot

be completely vaporized or they require large
quantities of steam. Thus, the process becomes
uneconomical.

Oxygenated components such as phenols have a

tendency to dissolve in the still water, so their
complete removal by distillation is not possible.

Water distillation is a slower process than

either water and steam distillation or direct
steam distillation.
 4.1.3.2 WATER & STEAM DISTILLATION
In water and steam distillation, the steam can be generated either in a satellite
boiler or within the still, although separated from the plant material.
MODIFICATION:

1.By water distillation, quality of oil is not very good because of its still notes (subdued
aroma). As a result, some modifications are made. Using the same still, a PERFORATED
GRID OR PLATE is fashioned so that the plant material is raised above the water. This
reduces the capacity of the still but affords a better quality of oil.

2.COHOBATION is a procedure that can only be used during water distillation or water
and steam distillation. It uses the practice of returning the distillate water to the still after
the oil has been separated from it so that it can be re-boiled. The principal behind it is to
minimize the losses of oxygenated components, particularly phenols which dissolve to some
extent in the distillate water.
DISADVANTAGE: As this material is being constantly re-vaporized, condensed and re-
vaporized again, any dissolved oxygenated constituents will promote hydrolysis and
degradation of themselves or other oil constituents.
Similarly, if an oxygenated component is constantly brought in contact with a direct heat
source or side of a still, which is considerably hotter than 100° C, then the chances of
degradation are enhanced. As a result, the practice of cohobation is not recommended
unless the temperature to which oxygenated constituents in the distillate are exposed is
no higher than 100° C.
ADVANTAGE Higher oil yield

Less susceptible to hydrolysis & polymerization

If refluxing is controlled, then loss of polar compound is minimized

Oil quality is more reproducible

Faster & more energy efficient

DISADVANTAGE Due to low pressure of rising steam, oils of high boiling range require a greater
quantity of steam for vaporization, hence longer hours of distillation

Plant material becomes wet, which slow down distillation as the steam has to
vaporize the water to allow it to condense further up the still

To avoid lower plant material resting on the grid from becoming waterlogged, a
baffle is used to prevent the water from boiling too vigorously & coming in
direct contact with plant material.
 4.1.3.3 DIRECT STEAM DISTILLATION

As the name suggests, direct steam distillation is the process of distilling plant
material with steam generated outside the still in a satellite steam generator
generally referred to as a boiler.

ADVANTAGE:
• A real advantage of satellite steam generation is that the amount of steam can be
readily controlled.
• Because steam is generated in a satellite boiler, the plant material is heated no
higher than 100° C and, consequently, it should not undergo thermal degradation.
• Most widely accepted process for the production of essential oils on large scale.

DISADVANTAGE:
Much higher capital expenditure
 4.2 Hydrolytic Maceration Distillation

Certain plant materials require maceration in warm water before they release their
essential oils, as their volatile components are glycosidically bound.

For example, leaves of wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) contain the precursor

gaultherin and the enzyme primeverosidase; when the leaves are macerated in warm
water, the enzyme acts on the gaultherin and liberates free methyl salicylate and
primeverose.

Other similar examples include brown mustard (sinigrin), bitter almonds (amygdalin)
and garlic (alliin).
 4.3 EXPRESSION

Expression or cold pressing, as it is also known, is only used in the production of citrus oils.
The term expression refers to any physical process in which the essential oil glands in the peel
are crushed or broken to release the oil.

A. SPUNGE METHOD:
• Halving the citrus fruit followed by pulp removal with the aid of sharpened spoon-knife
(known as a rastrello).
• The oil was removed from the peel either by pressing the peel against a hard object of
baked clay (concolina) which was placed under a large natural sponge or by bending the
peel into the sponge.
• The oil emulsion absorbed by the sponge was removed by squeezing it into the concolina
or some other container.
• It is reported that oil produced this way contains more of the fruit odor character than oil
produced by any other method.
B. EQUALING:
• Shallow bowl of copper (or sometimes brass) with a hollow central tube; the equaling
tool is similar in shape to a shallow funnel.
• The bowl is equipped with brass points with blunt ends across which the whole citrus
fruit is rolled by hand with some pressure until all of the oil glands have burst.
• The oil and aqueous cell contents are allowed to dribble down the hollow tube into a
container from which the oil is separated by decantation.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and
not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Health of such kind is the
existential aspiration of every human individual. However this may only
be attained and realised by the comprehensive understanding of the
interrelationship between material, plant, animal and human order and
the ecosystem intertwining these entities.
The correctness of all human activities are based on the fact that
whether they are enriching the following:

Human-Human relations

Human –Nature relation