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MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

Mathematics Education offers both undergraduates and starting-graduate students

in education an introduction to the connections that exist between mathemat-
ics and a critical orientation to education. This primer shows how concepts like
race, class, gender, and language have real effects in the mathematics classroom,
and prepares current and future mathematics teachers with a more critical math
education that increases accessibility for all students. By refocusing math learning
towards the goals of democracy and social and environmental crises, the book also
introduces readers to broader contemporary school policy and reform debates
and struggles.
Mark Wolfmeyer shows future and current teachers how critical mathemat-
ics education can be put into practice with concrete strategies and examples in
both formal and informal educational settings. With opportunities for readers to
engage in deeper discussion through suggested activities, Mathematics Education’s
pedagogical features include:

• Study Questions for Teachers and Students

• Text Boxes with Examples of Critical Education in Practice
• Glossary

Mark Wolfmeyer is Assistant Professor in the College of Education at Kutztown

University of Pennsylvania.
Critical Introductions in Education Series
Series Editor: Kenneth J. Saltman

The Politics of Education: A€Critical Introduction, second edition

By Kenneth J. Saltman

Mathematics Education: A€Critical Introduction

By Mark Wolfmeyer
MATHEMATICS
EDUCATION
A Critical Introduction

Mark Wolfmeyer
First published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor€& Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor€& Francis
The right of Mark Wolfmeyer to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections€77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Wolfmeyer, Mark.
Title: Mathematics education : a critical introduction / by Mark Wolfmeyer.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2017. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016035095 | ISBN 9781138243279 (hardback) |
ISBN€9781138243286 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Mathematics—Study and teaching—United States. |
Education—Social aspects—United States.
Classification: LCC QA13 .W654 2017 | DDC 510.71/073—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016035095
ISBN: 978-1-138-24327-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-24328-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-26952-8 (ebk)
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
For my parents, Helen and Paul
CONTENTS

List of â•›Figures and Tables viii

Series Preface ix
Prefacexi
Acknowledgmentsxiii

1 What Is Mathematics? From Mathematicians to

Philosophers and Anthropologists 1

2 Initial Examinations of Mathematics Education:

Purpose, Problems, and Method 19

3 A White Institutional Space: Race and Mathematics Education 42

4 Social Class Hierarchies and Mathematics Education:

To Reproduce or Interrupt? 58

5 Rationalism, Masculinity, and the “Girl Problem”

in Mathematics Education 73

6 Putting It All Together: Intersectionality, Current

Mathematics Education Policy, and Further Avenues
for Exploration 90

Glossary of Terms 104

Index109
FIGURES AND TABLES

Figures
Figure€1.1╅ A€worked-out mental math example 3
Figure€1.2╅ An elementary example of pure mathematics 5
Figure€1.3╅ Beans arranged to deduce theorems from number theory 6

Tables
Table€1.1╅ Some branches of pure mathematics, with description 4
Table€1.2╅ Some branches of applied mathematics, with description 4
Table€2.1╅ Two mathematics lesson plan structures 29
SERIES PREFACE

Mathematics Education: A€Critical Introduction is an exciting addition to the Critical

Introductions series. Books in the series provide critical introductions to social
studies education, math education, English education, science education, art edu-
cation, educational leadership, and more. The series is designed to offer students
who are new to these subjects in education an introduction and overview—a first
book for a first course. These “primers,” covering the key subjects of education,
are intended to help students broadly comprehend their new field socially and
politically. While primers in the series engage with dominant liberal and con-
servative views on subjects, they ask readers to comprehend dominant perspec-
tives of a subject area through a critical lens that focuses on social justice, power,
politics, ethics, and history. Additionally, these Critical Introductions provide stu-
dents with a new vocabulary and key framing concepts with which to interpret
future knowledge about the field gleaned through academic study and clinical
experiences in schools. For this reason, Critical Introductions include boldfaced
key terms in the text that are defined in a glossary in the back. They also include
lists of suggested readings and potential questions for discussion accompanying
each chapter. The books are suited for instructors to pair chapters with selections
from the lists of suggested readings at the end of each chapter. Ideally, these Criti-
cal Introductions can be both a kind of field guide or handbook arming students
to interpret experiences in schools and serve as a foundational text for future
deeper scholarly study and development of a critical understanding of educational
subjects built through further engagement with newly acquainted authors and
texts. The Critical Introductions series also offers a basis for social and politi-
cal engagement and activism within the field of education because they ground
their examinations of particular subjects in terms of broader contemporary school
policy and reform debates and struggles. In this sense, even advanced graduate
xâ•… Series Preface

students and seasoned scholars in education would benefit from consulting these
Critical Introductions for a fuller comprehension of their field and the political
struggles and stakes in several subjects affecting teachers, students, and colleagues.
This book, Mathematics Education: A€Critical Introduction, provides an overview
to its subject. Mathematics education, perhaps more than any other area in teacher
education, is framed as neutral and apolitical and has been codified in ways that
resist examination of the values, assumptions, interests, and ideologies that organ-
ize knowledge and pedagogical practice. Mark Wolfmeyer breaks through the
assumptions that math education is neutral, disinterested, and universal and instead
gives the reader an understanding of how math education relates to social and
racial inequality, gender disparity, and class oppression. His account clearly and
accessibly investigates the philosophical underpinnings behind math education
in its traditional and critical variations. As well, in the course of showing what
is entailed in a specifically critical math education, he engages with the different
perspectives of major scholars. His book explores the broader economic, social,
political, and cultural implications of teaching math and makes these concerns
central rather than incidental to mathematics education.
Wolfmeyer’s work is unique in helping new math teachers ask the question of
why they are becoming math teachers, what it means socially, and how it affirms
or contests existing social arrangements.Teachers, through their practices, inevita-
bly make meanings in the classroom, and the meanings that they make have social
import. Wolfmeyer shows that it is impossible for a math teacher to be outside of
politics in this sense—that is, math education is implicated in the inevitable con-
flicts among groups and classes over money and resources but also over symbols,
values, and meanings. The crucial matter is whether or not one comes to under-
stand these inevitably political dimensions of teaching math. Moreover, once one
comes to understand that teaching math is inevitably political, Wolfmeyer shows
the reader what s/he can do about it by making the teaching of math a force for
challenging oppression and exploitation. Wolfmeyer offers a vision for math edu-
cation as a force for expanding justice, equality, fairness, and inclusion.
PREFACE

This book presents my attempt to bring together the most critical work in math-
ematics education and make this accessible for future and current mathematics
teachers. I€also hope that critical educators more generally will find it helpful in
understanding mathematics teaching. What, you ask, do I€mean by critical? I€start
my answer with two famed scholars of mathematics education, Ole Skovsmose
and Brian Greer (2012), who first argue that to be critical is to challenge. This is
the conventional use of the term; to be critical is to ask questions, to check for
hidden assumptions, to push and prod. But second, in looking at etymological
relations, they also remind us that to be critical is to attend to crisis. True to this
dyad, then, the assemblage contained herein opens up mathematics education
for its contribution to the crises of our time, as well as the opportunities existing
within mathematics education that can interrupt them.
Take the following as examples of modern-day crises: racial injustice, gender
inequality, social class hierarchy, and environmental catastrophe. As will be revealed
in the contents of this book, to think critically about mathematics teaching is
to examine the underlying sociopolitical orderings of relations between groups
of people through a focus on power, ethics, and historical and cultural under-
standings. Advanced work in critical social theory suggests that such a framework
illuminates the aforementioned crises of our time. Sadly, mathematics education
as it is largely practiced reinforces these unjust circumstances and, interestingly,
does so with a veil of neutrality. The propagation of mathematics as an objective,
value-free discipline will be our first line in critiquing mathematics education as
it is typically conceived. In place of this, we can view mathematics as a socially
developed collection of not-yet-disproven concepts, and such a view begins to
open our eyes to the manner in which a mathematical education can interrupt
today’s crises.
xiiâ•…Preface

After an introduction to the philosophy and anthropology of mathematics,

the second chapter introduces the first step toward teaching mathematics criti-
cally, that of reform mathematics education. This orientation will remain present
throughout the book as we discuss such a pedagogy’s promises and limitations.
In the third, fourth, and fifth chapters, we take the social constructs of race, class,
and gender, respectively, in turn. Each of these three chapters moves through the
relevant critical social theory before engaging with advancements in mathematics
education on the topic. In all, there exists the dual objective of critiquing main-
stream mathematics education as well as redefining it for critical work.
Regarding these efforts, I€feel compelled to provide some words of caution.
First, treating each topic (race, class, and gender) on its own presents a certain
danger, namely that singular discussions focusing on one social identity at a time
might cause us to have a narrowed, incomplete picture or perhaps privilege
one factor (say, social class) over another. For this reason, the concluding chap-
ter makes important the notion of intersectionality, an advancement in social
theory in which the interrelated natures of race, social class, gender, and so on
are highlighted. Another limitation of the discussions here is the imbalance in
space devoted to the differing crises. I€chose to write entire chapters devoted to
race, class, and gender mostly because these have been attended to significantly by
critical educators of mathematics; unfortunately, much more work is to be done
on disability studies, language-minority students, and sexuality and mathematics
education, for example. I€do, however, touch on these topics as well as the envi-
ronmental crisis where I€found it relevant and hope that future efforts in critical
mathematics will attend to these issues.
I close with my intended audience for this book and an introduction to its
features. First and foremost, I€wrote it with future mathematics teachers in mind,
and I€plan to use it for undergraduate and early graduate students. In teacher
education, I€suggest that it be used as a text in either a mathematics pedagogy
course or an educational foundations course. The book’s style is conversational,
and it contains features to aid in accessibility, including the glossary at the end of
the book, and at the conclusion of each chapter you will find suggested activities
and prompts for discussion. In these efforts, I€also expect that current mathemat-
ics teachers eager to deeply examine their practice will find the book easy to use.
Finally, to broaden the readership, I€also made sure that mathematical discussions
do not require advanced prior knowledge of mathematics. This provides greater
access to critically teaching mathematics for other readers, such as students and
scholars of educational foundations, who might come to the conversation with a
critical rather than mathematical orientation.

Reference
Skovsmose, O.€& Greer, B. (Eds.) (2012). Opening the cage: Critique and politics of mathematics
education. Boston, MA: Sense.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I€thank members of my family for their support in writing
this book. My partner Ellie Escher and children Beatrice and Guy WolfmeyerE-
scher have provided much encouragement and the space that I€needed to get
the project done. Thanks specifically to Beatrice for help with Figure€1.3! Also,
thanks to my parents Helen and Paul Wolfmeyer, to whom I€have dedicated this
book. I€have the critical orientations needed to write it thanks to their efforts in
teaching me justice and empathy since I€was a child. Last, to my in-laws Gus and
Connie Escher and to siblings David Wolfmeyer, Beth Cocuzza, and Amy Escher,
thank you for your support.
Thank you to Kenneth Saltman for inviting me to submit a proposal for the
series and for feedback throughout the writing process and to Catherine Bernard,
editor at Routledge, for help in shaping the book as it developed and for seeing
it through to print. Also continued thanks to my early mentor, Joel Spring, for
teaching me a style of writing that increases access to challenging, complicated,
and critical topics.
A number of others provided encouragement, support, and/or extensive feed-
back on this book. These include John Lupinacci, Nataly Chesky, Brian Greer,
Erika Bullock, Theresa Stahler, Patricia Walsh Coates, George Sirrakos, E. Wayne
Ross, Greg Bourassa, Graham Slater, Miriam Tager, Edwin Mayorga, and Charles
Nace. Finally, thanks to the blind reviewers who provided substantive feedback to
augment the book’s contents and accessibility.
1
WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
From Mathematicians to Philosophers
and Anthropologists

This book provides an introduction to teaching mathematics with a critical per-

spective. A€natural starting place is to looking critically at the discipline of math-
ematics, and you might be thinking, how can we look critically at mathematics?
Do we not consider mathematics to be the objective, value-free knowledge that is
free from argumentation and contention? Is it not true that 1 + 1€=€2 and there
is no evidence to the contrary? It turns out that there is much dispute as to the
nature of mathematics and what counts as math. Mathematics means one thing to
one person and a completely different thing to another.
We answer this chapter’s question first with a review of what people typically
think mathematics is and next the activity of mathematicians, giving meaning to
its two main branches: pure and applied. Next, I€introduce the world of philoso-
phy of mathematics for an answer, and this brings forth an interesting question:
Does mathematics exist external to people, or did we invent it? Reviewing these
philosophies begins a deeper critique of the assumptions we typically hold about
mathematics; this will continue with the subsequent introductions to history of
mathematics and the burgeoning field of ethnomathematics. Both push us to
think of mathematics less as a static world of academic (mostly white and western)
development and rather as a multicultural and social activity.
For this chapter, as well as for the whole book, I€intend to provide a mean-
ingful experience for readers with a variety of backgrounds in mathematics and
education. The discussion on mathematics contained herein is appropriate for
those with little or negative experience in mathematics; I€also expect readers with
a stronger mathematical background to find the discussion fun and instructive.
For example, these readers might find interesting the particular choices I€made in
discussing mathematics and the discussions regarding philosophies of mathematics
as well as ethnomathematics.
2â•… What Is Mathematics?

An Introduction to Mathematical Behaviors

and Pure and Applied Mathematics
Let’s begin to answer what mathematics is by describing a few mathematical
behaviors. First, there is the mathematical behavior of computations with num-
bers. This is a common point of reference for an understanding of mathematics.
You or someone you know of, for example, may say, “Ugh, I€am so bad at math!”
when confronted with a task that requires multiplication, division, addition, or
subtraction of two numbers. The “basic four computations” are likely the first
things that come to mind when most people think of math.
Let’s play in this conception of math a bit. See if you can add the numbers 781
and 312 without a calculator. Many of you might like to reach for a pencil and
paper and set up the problem as you were taught in school. These pencil-and-
paper methods are referred to as standard algorithms for mathematical computa-
tions. At some point, a person (like a teacher or a parent) might have encouraged
you to try to answer such problems without the use of the standard algorithm,
instead prompting you to develop a reasoned computation strategy. Try the prob-
lem again. The goal is not to say the answer (1,093) but to argue how you arrived
at the answer. Now try to give a mental computation for 43 times 15. Give your-
self a chance to come up with some methods before reading the next paragraph.
There are many ways to compute the answer of 645, and here is one of these
as an example. Break the 43 into 40 and 3. You know you need to multiply 40
times 15 and 3 times 15. The second one is easy by repeated addition (45). The
first problem can be made simpler again by multiplying 4 by 15 (60) and adding
an extra 0, because the problem is really 40 by 15 (600). Now you add your two
parts together to get 645. You may be able to follow this short narrative, and/or
Figure€1.1 may help. This method relies on the fact that we understand the con-
cept of multiplication.We can think about multiplication as repeated addition. For
example, 5 times 4 is 5 + 5 + 5 + 5. This was an important part of our method.
For one, we easily saw how 45 is the product of 3 and 15. It also allowed us to
break apart the 43 into 40 and 3 and then add the results together.
I have been describing the knee-jerk response to the main question of this
chapter: Mathematics means “doing these types of computations.” Mathematics,
however, is much more than this, and we need to look at the other behaviors
that can be considered mathematical. Where to go next but with those whose
professional activity centers on such behaviors: mathematicians. To the point,
I€once took a course called Abstract Algebra with a mathematician who often
proclaimed that he was “no good with numbers.” He was partly joking, but it is
true that he rarely encounters a number in his own research. Right from the start,
then, we begin to see how mathematics is far more than the number and opera-
tions that quickly come to mind.
Many university math departments, where mathematicians often work, are
split into two divisions: pure and applied. In What Is Mathematics, Really? Ruben
 What Is Mathematics?â•… 3

FIGURE 1.1╅ A€worked-out mental math example

Hersh (1997) differentiates the two as follows: “Mathematics that stresses results
above proof is sometimes called ‘applied mathematics.’ Mathematics that stresses
proof above results is sometimes called ‘pure mathematics’â•›” (p.€6). Pure mathema-
ticians work within abstract worlds to prove things that have little association to
a particular physical (or social) situation. Applied mathematicians do the opposite:
they start with these physical or social situations and adapt the work of pure math-
ematicians to address particulars within the real-world application.
Within each division are a host of topics. From among the topics in pure math
are number theory, algebra, geometry, topology, calculus, analysis, and combinato-
rics. Table€1.1 gives an elementary description of each of these.
Generally speaking, applied mathematics includes any kind of mathematical
knowledge that has made a connection to a real-world problem. Such endeavors
have spawned particular fields of their own, such as differential equations, mathe-
matical modeling, statistics, mathematical physics, and game theory.Table€1.2 gives
an elementary description of each of these. Both the applied mathematics table
and the preceding pure mathematics table give a sense of what these branches are
about. In truth, most are difficult to define narrowly, and none are entirely isolated
from any other branch. These are partial lists aiming to distinguish the character-
istic differences between pure and applied mathematics.
Thus a variety of mathematical topics are at play among the work of mathe-
maticians. The distinction between pure and applied mathematics proves highly
relevant as we look at mathematics critically in order to conceptualize how we
will teach it and for what purpose. I€want to illuminate this distinction with two
4â•… What Is Mathematics?

TABLE 1.1╇Some branches of pure mathematics, with description

Mathematical branch Description

Number theory Discrete mathematics, the study of integers, primes, rational

numbers
Algebra Study of mathematical symbols and operations; ranges from
elementary equations (as in school algebra) to advanced topics,
such as linear (vector spaces) and abstract algebra (groups, rings,
and fields)
Geometry Properties and theorems related to figures; spans Euclidean
geometry (including elementary topics taught in schools) to
non-Euclidean geometries (advanced)
Topology Advanced geometry that studies figures that are fluid, those that
are stretched and bent but not torn or glued, with a focus on set
theory
Calculus Focuses on change with respect to functions, with two main
branches: differential (instantaneous rates of change, slopes of
tangent lines to curves) and integral (areas under curves)
Analysis The broader branch of mathematics that includes calculus; focuses
on continuous functions and real numbers
Combinatorics Discrete mathematics; focuses on countability; includes probability
and some work in algebra and geometry

TABLE 1.2╇Some branches of applied mathematics, with description

Branch of applied mathematics Description

Differential equations Application of calculus (derivatives) to physics, chemistry,

biology, other hard sciences, engineering, economics
Mathematical modeling Description of a physical or social system using
mathematics; useful in studying components of a system
and making predictions
Statistics Collection, analysis, interpretation of numerical data
Mathematical physics Branch of applied mathematics dealing with physical
problems; a type of modeling
Game theory Study of decision making with applications to many fields
of study including biology, economics, and political
science

mathematical examples from basic and intermediate mathematics. First, return-

ing to our computation problem, we can see how 43 times 15 is an abstract
concept, and our method of computing it required a conceptual understanding
that multiplication is repeated addition. It is not too difficult to imagine a con-
text in which we would have to apply such knowledge. For example, I€might
want to determine how much compost I€need to spread on my garden that has
 What Is Mathematics?â•… 5

dimensions 43 feet by 15 feet. In a sense, multiplication is both pure and applied

mathematics.
For another example, you may have learned a bit of trigonometry in your
mathematical experiences. One fact in basic trigonometry is about the relation-
ships between the side lengths of a right isosceles triangle, that is, a triangle with
one 90-degree angle and two 45-degree angles. If you know one of the lengths
of the “legs,” the two sides that are equal, then you can approximate the longest
side by multiplying the leg length by about 1.4 (the exact number is the square
root of 2). You can prove this using the Pythagorean theorem, and this is shown
in Figure€1.2 when you assign the length of the two equal sides as x. This is an
elementary example of pure mathematics.
As for applied mathematics, such trigonometric relationships are readily appli-
cable to the real world. Back to gardening, let’s say you have a square garden that
measures 20 feet on each side and you need to know the length from one corner
to its opposite corner (the diagonal length). Using the mathematics described
here, you can approximate this length as about 14 feet.
When thinking of the two broad branches of mathematics, applied mathemat-
ics may seem the less daunting of the two.The work of pure mathematics involves
the invention of new material, whereas applied math takes these efforts to solve
new problems. However, this perception is not at all the case, as applied mathema-
ticians have their work cut out in dealing with the “messy” real world. To solve
problems, they need to appropriate mathematical ideas that have been created in
an ideal, perfect world. It is also true that venturing into the new frontiers of pure
mathematics is highly daunting, and many work tirelessly for years at this. This
discussion between the two branches suggests that mathematics teaching must
include both. Many attempts have been made to “make mathematics relevant”
with the inclusion of applied mathematics. Some of these are more contrived
(think of those textbook word problems that do not resemble real situations),

FIGURE 1.2â•… An elementary example of pure mathematics

6â•… What Is Mathematics?

and there are other examples that reflect the work of applied mathematics more
accurately. As for pure mathematics, teaching mathematics in this way implies that
we provide experiences through which our students will come to “invent” math-
ematical ideas as pure mathematicians do.
For the latter, here is an example adapted from Paul Lockhart’s (2009) Math-
ematician’s Lament: How School Cheats Us Out of Our Most Fascinating and Imagina-
tive Art Form. We will take a deeper look at this book in Chapter€2, but for now, it
helps us explore pure mathematics a bit more with an example problem coming
from the mathematical branch of number theory. The most helpful part of Lock-
hart’s example is the fact that he encourages us to imagine any number as a pile
of rocks. So, to begin: imagine the numbers 9 and 4 as two separate piles of rocks.
Now consider arranging them in various ways, like a line, a circle, a square, more
than one object, and so on. It could be helpful for you to get out some beans or
something else to use as your “rocks.”
I assume you know that 9 is an odd number and 4 is an even number. Con-
tinue playing around, arranging your rocks, and this time focus on these facts
about even and odd. Is there a way you can arrange the 4 to show that it’s even?
Maybe create a set of 6 rocks and 8 rocks as well; then you have a few even num-
bers to play with. Do the same for odd. Come up with as many arrangements
as possible. The longer you play, the more likely you are to come up with the
arrangement I€hope you do. This arrangement, Figure€1.3, appears below. Don’t
peek until you’ve played enough!

FIGURE 1.3â•… Beans arranged to deduce theorems from number theory

 What Is Mathematics?â•… 7

Any even number can be placed in two equal rows. In other words, we can pair
up each of the rocks. If we try to place an odd number of rocks into two rows, one
of the rocks is left without a pair. Fascinating!
This representation can be used to answer some interesting questions in num-
ber theory. Use these representations (numbers as rocks) to prove an answer to the
following questions: What kind of a number do you get when you add two even
numbers? Two odd numbers? An even and an odd number? Enjoy playing with
these representations and work on a problem in pure mathematics!
There is one final note about the notions of pure and applied math. As with
most dichotomies, I€suggest you consider them as useful categories to further
appreciate the nuances of mathematics. In doing so, however, we cannot come
to understand them in any way as distinct entities. There is much of mathematics
that may fall into one or the other category. Similarly, the notion of application
seems to suggest that pure math always comes first. And, by further logic, that
pure math is somehow superior to applied math. Hersh (1997) notes that pure
mathematicians value applied math just as highly as pure math. Part of this is the
fact that much of pure math has occurred as the result of applied math. “Not only
did the same great mathematicians do both pure and applied mathematics, their
pure and applied work often fertilized each other. This was explicit in Gauss and
Poincaré” (p.€26).

What Does the Philosophy of Math Tell Us?

Exploring these various branches of academic mathematics has begun to answer
our central goal in this section. After such an introduction, it seems appropriate
to next take a look at the work of philosophers of mathematics.We might suspect
such work aims to answer the question in a very direct way. Instead, learning the
mainstream and contrary viewpoints within the philosophy of math presents an
important consideration you may not have anticipated. Namely, the following
review asks us to decide whether mathematics exists outside of our having dis-
covered it, as a set of ideals, or as something that was created by people. The latter
represents some of the more controversial and critical aspects to thinking about
what mathematics is.
Two books provide a highly comprehensive review of these areas: Hersh
(1997), What Is Mathematics, Really?, and Ernest (1990), The Philosophy of Mathe-
matics Education. Both provide a significant review of the major names in philoso-
phy of mathematics, with Hersh as a narrative style and Ernest as an in-depth and
technical review of each strand of philosophies of mathematics. Both pay equal
attention to what we might call a mainstream philosophy of mathematics and
more critical viewpoints. For those in the mainstream viewpoint, “mathematics
is superhuman—abstract, ideal, infallible, eternal.” In several cases these thinkers
are “tangled with religion and theology” (Hersh, 1997, p.€92). On the other hand,
those with the contrary viewpoint see mathematics as a human activity or human
8â•… What Is Mathematics?

creation. Hersh refers to this group as the humanists, and he identifies thinkers on
both sides throughout the western history of the philosophy of mathematics. As
an example of humanist mathematics philosophy and a philosopher of mathemat-
ics himself, Ernest’s specific critical viewpoint is termed “social constructivism.”
The mainstream view of the philosophy of mathematics is clearly exhibited
by ancient Greek philosophers, including the Pythagorean society and Plato. The
Pythagorean society situated its mathematical activity within a quest for spiritual-
ity. For example,

The Pythagorean discovery that the harmonics of music were mathemati-

cal, that harmonious tones were produced by strings whose measurements
were determined by simple numerical ratios, was regarded as a religious rev-
elation.€.€.. The Pythagoreans believed that the universe in its entirety, espe-
cially the heavens, was ordered according to esoteric principles of harmony,
mathematical configurations that expressed a celestial music. To understand
mathematics was to have found the key to the divine creative wisdom.
(quote attributed to Richard Tarnas in Hersh, 1997, p.€93)

The perfect, ideal relationships witnessed in music and elsewhere indicated a har-
monious truth and beauty. It was as if to say, to lead fully spiritual lives, to become
more beautiful and perfect, we as people must learn mathematics and discover
such harmonies in their existence.
This is regarded as a stepping stone toward Plato’s famous notion of ideals, in
which mathematics played a significant role.

Platonism is the view that the objects of mathematics have a real, objective
existence in some ideal realm. It originates with Plato, and can be discerned
in the writings of the logicists Frege and Russell, and includes Cantor,
Bernays, Godel and Hardy among its distinguished supporters. Platonists
maintain that the objects and structures of mathematics have a real exist-
ence independent of humanity, and that doing mathematics is the pro-
cess of discovering their pre-existing relationships. According to Platonism
mathematical knowledge consists of descriptions of these objects and the
relationships and structures connecting them.
(Ernest, 1991, p.€29)

Such Platonism is one of a few varieties in the mainstream view of the philoso-
phy of mathematics that imagines mathematics as fixed, neutral, and value free.
Another strand of mathematics philosophies, absolutism, includes intuitionism,
formalism, and logicism. Logicism describes a standpoint in which all of math-
ematics can be described within logical terms and principles; formalism essentially
claims mathematics to be the practice of defining mathematical truths through
symbols; and intuitionism holds that mathematics must rely on the construction
 What Is Mathematics?â•… 9

of proofs and objects (Ernest, 1991, pp.€7–12). As Ernest (1990) writes, absolutist
schools of philosophy should have

included accounting for the nature of mathematics, including external social

and historical factors, such as the utility of mathematics, and its genesis.
Because of their narrow, exclusively internal preoccupations, these schools
have made no contribution to a broadly conceived account of mathematics.
(pp.€23–29)

Hersh points out that in many instances, such absolutist and Platonic frames of
mind coincide with a religious or theological perspective. For example, Descartes
attempts to prove that God exists because a perfect triangle exists within his mind.
In this way, mathematics is seen as a set of divine ideals to be discovered by people.
On the other hand, a major branch of philosophy of mathematics is termed
fallibilism: the view that “mathematical truth is fallible and corrigible, and can
never be regarded as beyond revision and correction” (Ernest, 1991, p.€18). If Pla-
tonism and absolutism rest on mathematics’ attempts to discover what is indubita-
ble, fallibilism represents a mathematical body of knowledge that we know to be
true simply because we have not proven it false yet. More broadly, this description
fits under what Hersh terms a “humanist” mathematics, in which mathematics is
seen as the product of human interaction and contestation. Ultimately, any math-
ematical truth has been argued by people and is thus the product of such human
experiences. Among many more, two philosophers of mathematics are important
here: Ludwig Wittgenstein and Imre Lakatos. Wittgenstein declares the following:
“1 plus 1 equals 2 because we have decided it so.” This is an important step and
a clear disagreement with the mainstream absolutist and Platonic perspectives.
The sum of two 1s equals 2 not because of some ideal set of numbers, existing in
their perfect form and perhaps with divine intervention. Instead, over the course
of human history, we have decided it so. Any person is free to disagree with the
equation. For example, they might say that the sum is 3. However, this person
would have difficulty participating in the mainstream use of numbers that society
has developed over time.
Lakatos described the process in more detail. Influenced by Karl Popper, a
philosopher of science, essentially he claimed that every mathematical truth is
the result of argumentation. Popper had revolutionized science by arguing that
scientific theories are only guesses waiting to be disproved by experimentation.
Similarly, mathematical truths are statements either proven true via an argument
that is accepted by the mathematical community (a “proof ”) or proven false given
a “counterexample” or perhaps other means. Earlier, we played with the notion
of proof when attempting to explain that the sum of two even numbers is even
earlier in this chapter. For the record, mathematicians would not accept our play
with rocks as a formal proof, but for conversation’s sake this will be helpful. How
about the counterclaim that two even numbers add to an odd number? Well, that
10â•… What Is Mathematics?

is easy to argue against with the use of a counterexample. Take a minute to give
one now by playing with your rocks, beans, and so forth.
Proving and providing counterexamples leads to mathematical “truth.” Hersh
writes,

Instead of a general system starting from first principles, Lakatos presents

clashing views, arguments, and counter-arguments; instead of fossilized
mathematics, mathematics grows unpredictably out of a problem and a con-
jecture. In the heat of debate and disagreement, a theory takes shape. Doubt
gives way to certainty, then to new doubt.
(Hersh, 1997, p.€211)

Embedded within Lakatos’s assertions is the assumption that mathematics is not

ideal truth and certainly not something created by God and that we discovered.
This point clashes somewhat with the mainstream philosophies of math. How-
ever, I€suggest it does not contradict the mathematical quest of discovering truth
and beauty, such as exemplified by the Pythagoreans and their attempts to live
the good life. What remains important in our objectives for studying mathemat-
ics education critically is that we examine the variety of natures of mathematics
expressed by this philosophical work.
A specific option available to us is Ernest’s own philosophy of mathematics,
what he terms the social constructivist position. Hersh positions Ernest’s work
within a humanist philosophy of mathematics. Ernest begins with the clear state-
ment that mathematics is a “social construction.” This concept will be utilized
consistently throughout this book, as we look at other examples of social con-
structs such as race, class, and gender. For now, think about social constructs as
objects that we might think of as “fixed realities” but instead have been developed
over time in social settings. Social theorist Michel Foucault uses the term “regimes
of truth.” Do we not usually think of mathematics as fixed and objective? True
and value free? And certainly the earlier philosophies of mathematics, like abso-
lutism, reinforce this assumption. Alternatively, we can think of mathematics as
something manufactured by social groups, a social construct.
To begin, Ernest (1991) orients us to a claim that mathematics is delivered
via language, which on its own is a construction of the social experience. In
describing the process in which mathematical knowledge comes to be, Ernest
distinguishes between objective and subjective mathematical knowledge. An indi-
vidual constructs subjective mathematical knowledge, and objective mathematical
knowledge is that which has been understood and accepted by a community of
mathematical knowers. When an individual proposes a new mathematical state-
ment, she uses language. The community of mathematical knowers uses objec-
tive mathematical knowledge to make sense of this new statement. The body of
objective mathematical knowledge is the discipline of mathematics, and such a
 What Is Mathematics?â•… 11

conception fits within a fallibilistic claim that everything known mathematically

has simply not yet been disproven.
Ernest stops short of discussing this community of mathematical knowers. He
claims that a philosophical inquiry can only go so far as to describe the generation
of mathematical knowledge through this social process.

It would be inappropriate in a philosophical account to specify any social

groups or social dynamics, even as they impinge upon the acceptance of
objective knowledge. For this is the business of history and sociology, and
in particular, the history of mathematics and the sociology of its knowledge.
(Ernest, 1991, p.€63)

That said, Ernest’s philosophy of social constructivism begs us to ask these ques-
tions as we go about our critical understanding of mathematics. We have thus
opened the door to our final two sections of this chapter: looking to the history
of mathematics and the field of ethnomathematics. It is my hope that these sec-
tions will help you more fully appreciate how mathematics is a social construct.
As you read, consider how these contributions describe a social process by which
mathematical knowledge has been created.

What Does the History of Math Tell Us?

History of mathematics is an important field that, on its own, helps us address the
question of what mathematics is. It will help us to think more deeply about the
social process by which mathematical knowledge has developed. Reading these
histories reveals to us an essential feature of this domain, namely that historians
of mathematics are either entirely concerned with western mathematics or with
the mathematics of “other” cultures. By drawing attention to this point, we come
to know not only what is math but also who does mathematics, thus broaden-
ing our inquiry in the chapter. For example, learning the history of mathemat-
ics indicates that the west adopted many mathematical practices from the east,
like arithmetical notation and trigonometry, and that Mesoamerican people (e.g.,
Maya, Aztec) developed sophisticated mathematical explanations of astronomical
patterns. Another point we will consider is the set of particular topics within the
entire domain mathematical knowledge, with special attention to statistics.
Specific works that are designated as histories of mathematics typically pre-
sent an overview of the progression of western mathematics. For example, Roger
Cooke’s (1997) The History of Mathematics: A€Brief Course is broken down into
three sections: modern western mathematics (developments since the Middle
Ages) and its two influences, early western mathematics (ancient Greece through
the Roman Empire), and nonwestern mathematics (such as Chinese, Hindu, and
Muslim societies). In this way, this body of work focuses on western mathematics.
12â•… What Is Mathematics?

It also implies a lack of mathematical invention in a host of other societies, such

as indigenous societies of sub-Saharan Africa and North and South America. For
these contributions, we will turn to the field of ethnomathematics in the next
section.
To start, histories of mathematics suggest the importance of a handful of
ancient societies that contributed to modern western mathematics. These include
Egyptian, Babylonian, Greek, Roman, Hindu, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and
Muslim people. All made contributions to a variety of branches of mathematics
that were further developed in the modern period. These groups developed such
topics as computation, number theory, geometry, algebra, and applied mathemat-
ics.The following are some examples of these contributions. Read these examples
to experience the diversity in influences on modern western mathematics as well
as to further your explorations of the concepts within mathematics.
Early mathematical practices existing in India and China are now very typical
practices across the globe. “Decimal notation and the symbols for numerals we
use today originated in India and came to Europe through the Arabs” (Cooke,
1997, p.€197). Over time and across societies, the format for each symbol repre-
senting the digits has changed. That is, there have been many different symbols to
represent 1, 2, 3, .€.€. In particular, then, the Indian influence was the practice of
using a single symbol for 10 digits and then using these to describe any number
as a sequence of digits. This saves us from continuing to invent new symbols for
the various numbers. For example, we could have: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &, #, @,
where€& is a symbol to mean 10, # means 11, and @ means 12. Or we could have
our number 10, which relies on the concept of place value and strings two symbols
together. The number 427 indicates that there are 4 hundreds, 2 tens, and 7 units.
We can thus describe any number with only 10 symbols and an understanding
of place-value notation. The place-value practice in base 10 was used both by the
Indians and Chinese at the time. It has been difficult to determine who used it
first, if that might be your interest, but

It certainly came to the West from the Arabs, who learned it from India.
In fact, one of the influential treatises by which Europeans learned about
the decimal system and the symbols for digits was a treatise by the Muslim
scholar Kushyar ibn Labban.
(Cooke, 1997, p.€197)

Our numeral system is often referred to as Arabic, but it has also been referred to
by other names to reflect more accurate historical understandings, such as Hindu-
Arabic numerals.
Indian influence also included their dealings with number theory, or the
branch of mathematics that studies whole numbers and rational numbers. Typi-
cal problems in the field include finding prime numbers and divisibility. For one,
Hindus were interested in the triples of integers for which the sum of the squares
 What Is Mathematics?â•… 13

of the two smaller equals the sum of the square of the larger. Two examples of
these triples are the numbers (3, 4, 5) and (9, 40, 41).You may have encountered
these before under the name “Pythagorean triples.” While the Pythagoreans may
have been interested in their practical use as related to right triangles, it is possible
the Hindus found a religious purpose to this project:

A Hindu home was required to have three fires burning at three different
altars. The three altars were to be of different shapes, but all three were to
have the same area. These conditions led to certain “Diophantine” prob-
lems, a particular case of which is the generation of Pythagorean triples, so
as to make one square integer equal to the sum of two others.
(Cooke, 1997, p.€198)

This example shows how the context within which mathematical knowledge
originates can be surprising. Perhaps we might expect to have found the first
use of Pythagorean triples in a topic more relevant to engineering. The religious
nature to this origination serves as an example of the socially constructed nature
of mathematics. Recall Ernest’s notion of the social constructed nature to math-
ematics. In this example from Hindu culture, the community of knowers validated
the mathematical knowledge because it fulfilled a particular desire in a religious
context.
Similar to number theory, algebra emerged among a variety of locations and
cultures. Its title comes from the Arabic word al-jabr, used by Muhammad ibn
Musa Al-Khwarizmi of the ninth century. His work centers on solving equa-
tions with an unknown by keeping the equation balanced. This can relate to
common practices in mathematics classrooms and modern algebra. For example,
to solve the equation€3x + 9€=€12, we can first subtract 9 from both sides to
keep the equation balanced. In this way, Al-Khwarizmi was interested in develop-
ing an algorithm, or procedure, for solving equations with unknowns. This goal
came about as the result of extensive work in dealing with equations with such
unknowns. Many consider this the essential feature of elementary algebra: solving
equations to find an unknown value.
With this quest to find unknowns as the focus of algebra, most consider the
“father of algebra” a toss-up between Al-Khwarizmi and the Roman mathema-
tician Diophantus of Alexandria. Likely written in the second century C.E.,
his Arithmetike contributes several practices that are commonly used in algebra.
As Roger Cooke notes, these include using symbols to represent an unknown
number (like using x in the earlier equation) and describing such an unknown
so that it can be determined. For the same equation (3x + 9€=€12), we could
give the following description: “I€am thinking of a number. When you multiply
this number by 3 and add 9, you get 12. Can you tell me the number?” This is a
game that some algebra teachers use with their students to begin understanding
the idea of an unknown number, as well as fostering the students’ development
14â•… What Is Mathematics?

of an algorithm to answer it. Both Diophantus and Al-Khwarizmi focused on

the ways to find unknown values and especially attempted to develop algorithms
that do this.
These examples from the history of mathematics aim to decenter a myth that
modern mathematics is a western conception. If anything, the pattern seems to
be the appropriation of eastern concepts by western civilizations. Furthermore,
the development of mathematics is rich with social contexts, and such histories
help us consider mathematics as a construction by groups embedded in social
life. This answers the questions put forth by Ernest’s philosophy of mathematics
termed social constructivism, introduced previously. Individual contributors to
mathematical knowledge are not disconnected from the context of social life.
They aim to invent concepts and communicate these through a language that
will be accepted by the mathematical community. Mathematical knowledge is
also embedded with other aspects of social life, including practical matters like
engineering as well as spiritual matters.

Ethnomathematics: Thoughtfully Considering an

Anthropology of Mathematical Knowledge
Having reviewed some examples from the history of mathematics, we move to the
anthropologies of mathematics that further expand our conception of mathemat-
ics. This work, often referred to as ethnomathematics, suggests several important
points. First, it reminds us that the roots of mathematical knowledge are computa-
tion, arithmetic, and geometry. It also suggests a novel answer to our main ques-
tion that echoes Ernest’s social constructivism: mathematics is a language. Finally,
ethnomathematics continues to reject mathematics as a uniquely western project,
as the history examples have done.
To begin, we should review just what is meant by the term. A€major figure in
ethnomathematics is Ubiritan D’Ambrosio. His (2002) survey of the field proves
an excellent source to grasp its orientations and dispositions. As he puts it,

Ethnomathematics is the mathematics practiced by cultural groups, such as

urban and rural communities, groups of workers, professional classes, chil-
dren in a given age group, indigenous societies, and so many other groups
that are identified by the objectives and traditions common to these groups.
(p.€1)

This claims that mathematics exists in a multiplicity of practices and, a point rel-
evant to our teaching, that students and communities have mathematics embed-
ded in their lives.Thus D’Ambrosio suggests that ethnomathematics is essential to
best practices in pedagogy.
One mathematics education scholar, Alexander Pais (2011), cautions us to
think more carefully about these applications of ethnomathematics. He provides
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75 MM. GUN CARRIAGE, MODEL OF 1897 MI(FRENCH).
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
 75 MM. GUN CARRIAGE
MODEL OF 1897 MI FRENCH
REAR VIEW
 75 MM. GUN CARRIAGE
MODEL OF 1897 MI(FRENCH)
LEFT SIDE
 75 MM. GUN CARRIAGE
MODEL OF 1897 MI(FRENCH)
RIGHT SIDE
 75 MM. GUN CARRIAGE
MODEL OF 1897 MI(FRENCH)
PLAN VIEW

The principal parts of the carriage are: trail, axle, wheels, brakes,
shields, angle of site elevating mechanism, range elevating
mechanism, traversing mechanism, rocker, cradle and sights.
When traveling or resting, the tube rests on the cradle which
supports it by means of the jacket. When firing, it recoils on the
cradle by means of the rollers. The jacket has two pairs of rollers,
and the muzzle hoop is provided with a single pair of rollers. On the
upper part of the cradle are the lower slides, on which the jacket
rollers, supporting the tube, roll during the recoil. When the jacket
rollers are about to leave the lower slides, the muzzle rollers come
under the upper slides; the tube is then supported until the end of the
recoil by the muzzle rollers and the more forward of the two pairs of
jacket rollers. This device gives the gun a long recoil upon short
slides. Inclined planes are used in such a manner that when the gun
returns into battery the rollers rise from the lower slides thereby
relieving the slides from the weight of the tube when the tube is in
the traveling position.
The carriage supports the cradle which in turn supports the tube.
The cradle and the tube together are displaced, during the laying for
elevation with respect to the carriage which remains stationary. The
carriage is held steady on the ground by means of the trail spade
which with abatage prevents the carriage from recoiling on the
ground.
Abatage consists of elevating the wheels on the brake shoes
which are provided with small spades which prevent lateral
movement. The brake shoes are fastened to brake beams attached
to a sliding rack beneath the trail in such a manner that the abatage
frame may be placed under the carriage during travel. In preparing to
fire, the frame may be adjusted to allow the brake shoes to slip from
a position in rear of the carriage wheels to a point directly beneath
the wheels.

75-MM. GUN CARRIAGE, MODEL OF 1897, MI(FRENCH) WHEEL BRAKE

MECHANISM
 Abatage is accomplished as follows: (1) The brake shoes are
dropped to the ground in rear of the point of contact of the wheels
with the ground; (2) The trail is lifted, turning around the axle, until
the spade is about five feet in the air. Tie rods and a slide working on
a rack beneath the trail move forward in this action; (3) The trail is
then brought down. The rack prevents the slide from moving to the
rear and the carriage turns on the abatage frame until the wheels
rest upon the brake shoes. This gives the gun a three point support,
two small spades under the wheels and a larger one at the end of
the trail.
Laying in direction is accomplished by traversing the piece on
the axle. The trail spade is fixed and the axle is straight and rigid so
that in the movement of the gun to the right and left on the axle both
wheels must turn—one to the front and one to the rear. The device
for laying for direction is composed of a threaded axle, which is
prevented from rotating by a spur and a sliding nut which is
contained in a box fixed on the left flask of the gun. This nut bears
one of the bevel gears, which is put in motion by the hand wheel.
The traverse is three degrees either side of the center or a total of 6
degrees or about 105 mils.
Laying for elevation. To obtain greater accuracy and speed in
firing the 75 has an independent angle of site. A rocker with two
trunnions is interposed between the cradle and the carriage. The
rocker trunnions are seated in the cradle trunnions and support
them. This gives the same rotating axis to both rocker and cradle.
This is necessary for the mechanical addition of the angle of site
elevation and for the range elevation. When the angle of site
handwheel is revolved it turns a pinion, which meshes in the rocker
rack and thus causes the rocker to move in relation to the carriage.
This gives the cradle through the rocker the elevation equal to the
difference in elevation between the target and the gun. It is
independent of the angle given to the gun for the elevation due to
range to the target.
 75 MM. GUN CARRIAGE, MODEL OF 1897 MI(FRENCH).
RANGE ELEVATING MECHANISM

The angle given the gun for range is effected through a telescopic
screw. This screw is fastened at one of its extremities in the rocker
and at the other in the cradle. The nut which receives the elevating
screw is seated in an oscillating support which allows it to always
remain perpendicular to the axis of the bore at any elevation.
The angular displacements of the cradle with respect to the rocker
(angle of elevation) are recorded by the elevating system composed
of a graduated arc and a range drum. The lower part of the arc is
connected with the right arm of the rocker. The arc is graduated in
meters. When the range handle is turned the arc does not move, but
a brass slide block connected with the gun and the cradle and
bearing an index slides along the arc. It is thus possible to set the
range in meters.
However, the arc graduations are not very legible and it has been
supplanted by a graduated range drum having more legible
readings.
 The black part of the arc bears a rack which meshes with a pinion,
which in turn rotates around an axle fixed on the cradle. When the
cradle moves, the pinion rotates and carries with it the range drum.
The elevation on level ground varies from a minus 11 degrees to a
plus 20 degrees. Greater elevation may be obtained by sinking the
spade.
The Recoil and Counter-recoil mechanisms are of the Hydro-
pneumatic type. Their accurate description is a secret. The following
brief description will give only a general idea of the working of the
mechanism. The whole apparatus is inside of the cradle through
which are bored two cylinders: an upper cylinder 40 mm diameter,
and a lower cylinder 66 mm diameter. These cylinders may
communicate through a large hole. A piston moves in the upper
cylinder, the piston rod, 24 mm diameter, being fast to the gun.
In the lower cylinder are: (1) The valve carrier pipe screwed in the
rear part of the cylinder supporting spring valves; in the inner walls
of the pipe are cut two grooves; the valve carrier pipe is ended by a
circular ring. (2) The diaphragm with its hollow rod. (3) The loose
piston with its small rod, which may come in contact with the upper
rack of the gauge. The two cylinders are full of liquid, usually
Russian oil. The front part of the upper cylinder in front of the piston
may communicate freely with the air through the Front Plug. The
front part of the lower cylinder is closed by a plug and contains
compressed air at a pressure of 150 kg. per sq. cm.
Operation. In recoil the piston of the upper cylinder compresses
the liquid, which has to pass through the spring valves and between
the circular ring and the hollow rod of the diaphragm. The passage of
the liquid through these different openings constitutes the braking
effect. In so moving the liquid opens the valves, which are widely
opened at the beginning of the recoil and gradually close in
proportion to the decrease of the speed of the recoil. At the same
time, the air of the recuperator is compressed by the action of the
liquid on the diaphragm.
When the recoil is finished, the compressed air pushes back the
diaphragm. The liquid thus compressed acts on the small cylinder
piston and obliges it to come back into its initial position, bringing
with it the tube.
The liquid in flowing back completely closes the valves and must
pass between the diaphragm rod and the inner wall of the pipe. At
beginning of the return into battery, the space between the rod and
the bottom of the groove is large. This space decreases in proportion
to the progress of the return. The passing of the liquid through this
constantly decreasing space causes the braking which at the end
reduces the speed of the return to nil.

CARE AND PRESERVATION OF FRENCH 75.

Dismountings.

Cannoneer Dismountings.
A. Breechblock.
1. Safety piece.
2. Striker.
3. Lanyard.
4. Striker hammer.
5. Hammer spindle.
6. Spring assembling pin.
7. Rack springs.
8. Rack.
9. Latch pin. (Pawl Pin.)
10. Latch (Pawl).
11. Latch spring. (Pawl spring.)
B. Extractor.
1. Clow. (Tang.)
2. Spindle.
 3. Arms.
C. Level.
D. Sight case.
E. Wheels.
F. Limber pole.
G. Fuze setter from caisson.
H. Luggage frame from limber.

Mechanic Dismountings.
A. Coupling keg.
B. Push gun back on slides.
C. Safety bolt.
D. Friction piece. (Sweeper plate.)
E. Wiper. (Guide piece.)
F. Front plug.
G. Filling hole plug.
H. Elevating screw pin.
I. Elevating screw.
J. Trunnion caps.
K. Rocker Trunnion caps. (Half Rings.)

Daily Cleaning and Lubricating.

(By cannoneers.)
1. Clean sight support and socket.
2. Lubricate oil holes 20, 21, 22, 23, 24.
3. Clean base of sight column.
4. Clean levels.
5. Lubricate range mechanism. (Holes Nos. 1 and 2.)
6. Clean and oil rocker trunnion caps.
7. Oil holes 7 and 8.
 8. Clean and grease exposed parts of axle.
9. Dismount and clean breech and all its parts.
10. Clean and grease the bore if the gun has been fired.
11. Clean and grease the slides if the gun has been fired.
12. Grease the wheels if the gun has been on the road.
13. Clean fuze setter.
14. The life of a gun depends on “Daily Care.”

Forbidden Practices.
1. Readjustment of French Sights.
2. Fitting with files.
3. Forging and Riveting.
4. Unauthorized Dismountings.

Care of Recoil Mechanism.

(Chief Mechanic Only)

Caution.—Never remove piston rod nut, as piston is under

pressure and would pull piston rod into cylinder.
The recoil apparatus proper cannot be dismounted.
If properly taken care of the recoil mechanism will not go wrong for
years; but if neglected, its destruction is only a matter of very little
firing.
The position of the gauge finger is the index as to whether or not
the recoil is being properly absorbed.
The joints are not absolutely tight, the slight leakage which takes
place during fire or even when gun is at rest is not important.
 In normal firing conditions the recoil apparatus contains a slightly
greater quantity of oil than absolutely necessary; this quantity is
called the “reserve.” When the reserve is exhausted any loss is liable
to reduce the quantity strictly necessary. The loss may prevent the
gun from fully returning to battery when firing.
The amount of reserve is indicated by the position of the gauge.
No reserve: The gauge finger is down deep in its recess.
Full reserve: The end of the gauge finger is level with the gauge
index.
Excess reserve: The gauge finger projects beyond the index.
No firing should be done with an excess reserve.
The gauge finger should be between the index and ⅛ inch below
the index.
It is the duty of the Chief Mechanic to see that the gauge finger is
in the proper position before firing.
It is the duty of the Executive and the Chief of Section to see that
the gauge finger is in the proper position during fire; if it moves from
this position the Chief Mechanic will be called to make the proper
adjustments.
When the gauge finger has been brought to the proper position
there are only two conditions which call for tampering with recoil
apparatus.
1. The gun goes into battery too slowly, or has to be pushed in.
In this case the gauge finger will usually be found too deep in its
seat, and the pump will have to be used. If the gauge is in the proper
position look at the slides. Either they will be found dirty or bits of the
wiper may be nicked off. In the latter case the gun can be fired
without the wiper.
2. The gun jumps badly. In this case the gauge finger will generally
be found beyond the index. When this is the case the oil extractor
must be used until the gauge finger is in the proper position.
 If after cleaning slides, putting gun in abatage and adjusting gauge
finger, the gun still jumps badly—complete draining of the reserve
and refilling will frequently remedy the trouble.
 CHAPTER VII.
75-MM. FIELD GUN MODEL 1916.

THE GUN.
Weights and Dimensions.
Weight Kg 339.74 pounds 749.
Caliber mm 75. inches 2.953
Total length mm 2,308.5 inches 90.9
Length of bore mm 2,134. inches 84.
Length of rifled portion of
bore mm 1,847. inches 72.72
Number of grooves 24
Width of grooves mm 7.30 inches .2874
Depth of grooves mm .501 inches .02
Width of lands mm 2.52 inches .0992
Twist, right hand, zero turns from origin to a point 2.89 inches from
origin. Increasing from one turn in 119 calibers at a point 2.89 inches
from origin to one turn in 25.4 calibers at a point 9.72 inches from
muzzle. Uniform from a point 9.72 inches from muzzle to the muzzle.

Description of the 75-MM Field Gun.

The gun is built up of alloy-steel forgings, consisting of a tube,
jacket, breech hoop, and clip. All of the parts are assembled with a
shrinkage.
 The tube extends from the muzzle to the rear end of the powder
chamber and two recesses are cut in its rear face to form seats for
the lips on the extractors.
The jacket is assembled over the muzzle end of the tube. The
jacket carries two flanges on its lower side, which form guides for the
gun in the cradle of the carriage, and a lug on top near the forward
end which contains a T slot, which holds the recoil cylinder in place.
The rear end of the jacket is threaded on the outside to receive the
breech hoop.
The breech hoop is threaded at its forward end and screws on to
the rear of the jacket. The breech ring carries a recoil lug at the top
for the attachment of the hydraulic recoil cylinder, and another lug at
the bottom for attachment of the two spring piston rods. The rear part
of the breech hoop is cut away to form the breech recess.
The clip is a short hoop shrunk on the tube near the muzzle. It
carries two lugs on its under side which form guides for the gun in
the carriage.
The rear ends of the guides on the jacket are extended to the face
of the recoil lugs by short extensions riveted in place to prevent
entrance of dust between surfaces of the guides and their bearing
surfaces on the cradle. For the same purpose the forward ends of
the guides on the jacket are connected by steel-plate dust guards
with the rear ends of the guides on the clip.

Description of the Breech Mechanism.

The mechanism is known as the drop-block type, and is semi-
automatic in design in that the block closes automatically when a
round of ammunition is inserted. A rectangular hole extending
through the rectangular section of the breech hoop forms seat for the
sliding block. The upper part of the breech hoop in rear of this slot is
cut away, leaving a U-shaped opening which permits the passage of
the cartridge case.
 75-M.M. FIELD GUN BARREL

75-M.M. FIELD GUN MODEL OF 1916 MIII BREECH MECHANISM.

 75-MM. FIELD GUN MODEL OF 1916 M III BREECH MECHANISM

Recesses cut in both the side faces of the breech recess form
seats for trunnions for the two extractors. Holes bored into these
recesses from the rear face form seats for the extractor plungers,
springs and plugs. The block slides up and down in the breech
recess under the action of the operating arm which is pivoted on the
operating shaft and acts as an oscillating crank in raising and
lowering the block. The operating shaft which rotates the operating
arm is actuated by the operating handle. The operating handle is
provided with a latch to keep it in the closed position and is
connected by a chain, piston, and piston rod to the closing spring,
which is carried in the closing-spring case. The closing spring is
under compression and tends to keep the block closed or to close
the block when it is opened.
When the block is opened as far as it will go, it is locked in that
position by the inside trunnions on the extractors. These trunnions
are forced over horizontal shoulders on the block by means of the
extractor plungers and holds the block in the open position. When a
cartridge is pushed smartly into the gun, its rim striking against the
lips on the extractor frees the trunnions from the shoulders on the
block and allows the block to close under the action of the closing
spring.
A continuous-pull firing mechanism is carried in the recess bored
out in the center of the block and is operated by the trigger shaft
which projects from the bottom of the block. This mechanism is
cocked and fired by one continuous motion of the trigger shaft so
that in case of a misfire the primer may be struck a second blow by
releasing the shaft and rotating it again. A lanyard may be attached
to the projecting end of the trigger shaft.

CARRIAGE.

Weights and Dimensions.

Weight of carriage, complete, fully equipped,
2280 pounds
without the gun
Weight of gun and carriage fully equipped 3045 pounds
Weight of lunette, carriage limbered 140 pounds
Diameter of wheels 56 inches
Width of track, center to center of wheels 60 inches
Length of recoil of gun on carriage, variable recoil 18 to 46
Height of axis of gun about ground 42 approx.
Amount of elevation with elevating handwheel 42 degrees
7 to plus 53
Total limits of elevation
degrees
Maximum traverse either side of center 400 mils
Over all width of trails, spread 130 inches
Over all length, muzzle of gun to end of lunette 173 inches
Limits of elevation with angle of site handwheel, minus 7 degrees
 depression to 11 degrees elevation.

Description.
The carriage is of the split trail, variable long-recoil type. The
length of recoil is regulated automatically, so that the breech of the
gun will not strike the ground on recoil at an angle of elevation of
less than 47 degrees. At elevations greater than 47° a hole must be
dug for the breech in recoil.
The gun is mounted in slides on a cradle formed by the spring
cylinder. The spring cylinder is suspended by trunnions mounted in
bearings in the top carriage, which is supported by the pintle bearing
to which are attached axle arms bearing in the wheels.
The carriage has an independent angle of site elevating
mechanism, by means of which a maximum depression of seven
degrees and an angle of elevation of 11 degrees may be obtained.
The remaining elevation is obtained through the elevating
handwheel.

The principal parts of the carriage are:

Trail
Cradle
Recoil mechanism
Top carriage
Pintle bearing
Equalizing gear
Shields
Angle of site mechanism
Elevating mechanism
Traversing mechanism
Axle seat
Brake mechanism
Shoulder guards
Firing mechanism
Sight, model of 1916
Wheels.
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