Normal stress

P P

A B

The body resists the deformation by

R
developing stresses.

P
P
 Normal Stress

Tensile Stress Compressive Stress

P P P P
 Units:
SI unit for stress is Pascal (Pa)
Pa= N/m2 N/m2 N/mm2
1kPa 103 10-3
1MPa 106 1
1GPa 109 103
Kilopascal, 1kPa= 1000 N/m2
Megapascal , 1MPa = 1x 106 N/m2
= 1x 106 N/(106 mm2 )=1N/mm2
1MPa = 1 N/mm2
Gigapascal, 1GPa = 1x 109 N/m2
= 1x 103 MPa
=1x 103 N/mm2
STRAIN

L Change in the length

 
L Original length

P
  stress
A

  Linear strain
L
E=

Hooks law and Modulus of elasticity

Hooks law:
Stress ( )
 constant
Strain( )

Modulus of elasticity:

Stress ( ) PL

Strain( ) Adl
The following table shows modulus of elasticity
of important materials:

Material Modulus of elasticity

Steel 210 GPa
Aluminium 73Gpa
Brass 96 – 110 GPa
Cast Iron 83 – 170 GPa
Concrete 17 – 31 GPa
Rubber 0.0007 – 0.004 GPa
Tungsten 340 – 380 GPa
Tension test on ductile and brittle material
Factor of safety
Allowable stress

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Tension test on ductile and brittle
material
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel

 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel showing upper yield point
and lower yield point and also the elastic range and plastic range
 Load at proportion ality limit PP
Limit of Proportionality: P 
Original crosssecti onal area

A

Load at elatic limit P

Elastic limit:  E   E
Original cross sectional area A

Yield point:  Y Load at yield point P

  Y
Original cross sectional area A

Maximum load taken by the material PU

Ultimate strength: U  
Original cross sectional area A

Rupture strength Load at failure P

B   B
(Nominal Breaking stress): Original cross sectional area A

Load at failure P
True breaking stress: B   B
Actual cross sectional area A
 Gauge length

Increase in gauge
length
 Ductile Materials
Percentage elongation
Measures of ductility
Percentage reduction in area

Cup and cone

fracture for a
Ductile Material ►

Increase in the gauge length (upto fracture)

Percentage elongation  x100
Original gauge length

Reduction in cross sectional area of neck portion (at fracture)

Percentage reduction in area  x100
Original cross sectional area

Example: Low carbon steel, mild steel, gold, silver, aluminum

 Stress-strain Diagram

Brittle Materials :

Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material

 Working stress & Factor of safety

Ductile Material:

Working stress = Yield Stress / Factor of Safety

Brittle Material:

Working stress = Ultimate Stress / Factor of Safety

Factor of Safety = Maximum stress / Allowable working stress

N1. A strain gauge located at C on the
surface of bone AB indicates that the
average normal stress in the bone is 3.80
MPa when the bone is subjected to two
1200 N forces as shown. Assuming the
cross section of the bone at C to be
annular and Knowing that its outer
diameter is 25mm, determine the inner
diameter of the bones cross section at C.
N2 A composite bar consists of an aluminum section rigidly
fastened between a bronze section and a steel section as
shown in figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions
indicated. Determine the stress in each section. Also determine
the change in each section and the change in total length.
Given Eb = 100 GPa, Ea = 70 GPa, Es = 200 GPa

Aluminum
Bronze Steel
A= 180 mm2
A= 120 mm2 A= 160 mm2
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

300mm 400mm 500mm

 To calculate the stresses, first determine the forces in
each section.
To find the Force in bronze section,
consider a section bb1 as shown in the figure

b
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze

b1

For equilibrium condition algebraic sum of forces on

LHS of the section must be equal to that of RHS
 b
4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze

b1
4kN 4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN
Bronze (= )

Force acting on Bronze section is 4kN, tensile

Stress in Bronze
Force in Bronze section
section =
Resisting cross sectional area of the Bronze section
4kN 4  1000 N

= 120mm2 120mm2  33 .33 N / mm 2
= 33.33MPa
(Tensile stress)
 Force in Aluminum section

4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

Aluminum

4kN 13kN 9kN

(= 2kN 7kN )
Aluminum

Force acting on Aluminum section is 9kN,

(Compressive)
 Force in steel section

4kN 13kN 2kN 7kN

steel

7kN

4kN 13kN 2kN

steel 7kN

Force acting on Steel section is 7kN, ( Compressive)

Stress in Aluminum Force in Al section
section =
Resisting cross sectional area of the Al section
9kN 9  1000 N
=   50 N / mm 2
= 50MPa
180mm2 180mm2
Compressive stress

Stress in Steel section = Force in Steel section

Resisting cross sectional area of the Steel section
7 kN 7  1000 N

= 160mm2 160mm2  43. 75 N / mm 2
= 43.75MPa

(Compressive stress)
 we know that,
Pbr = +4kN (Tension)
Pal = -9kN (Compression) Deformation due to
Pst = -7kN (Compression) compressive force is
shortening in length, and is
considered as -ve

stress (σ) PL
E = strain (ε) = 
AL
PL
Change in length = L 
AE
Change in length of 4000 N  300mm
bronze = Lbr 
120mm2  100  103 ( N / mm2 )
= 0.1mm
Change in length of  9000 N  400mm
aluminum section = Lal  = -0.286mm
180mm  70  10 ( N / mm )
2 3 2

Change in length of  7000 N  500mm

steel section = Lst  = -0.109mm
160mm  200  10 ( N / mm )
2 3 2

Change in total
length = Lbr  Lal  Lst  +0.1 – 0.286 - 0.109
= -0.295mm
N4. A composite bar consists of an aluminum
section rigidly fastened between a bronze
section and a steel section as shown in figure.
Axial loads are applied at the positions
indicated. Determine the stress in each section.
Also determine the change in each section and
the change in total length.
Given Eb = 100 GPa, Ea = 70 GPa, Es = 200 GPa
N5. An aluminum rod is fastened to a steel rod as shown. Axial loads
are applied at the positions shown. The area of cross section of
aluminum and steel rods are 400 mm2 and 200mm2 respectively. Find
maximum value of P that will satisfy the following conditions.
a) σs ≤ 140 MPa
b) σa ≤ 80 MPa
c) Total elongation ≤ 0.5 mm,
Take Ea = 70 GPa and Es = 210 GPa
N6. A member ABCD is subjected to point loads P1, P2,P3
and P4 as shown in figure below.
Calculate the force P3 necessary for equilibrium if P1 = 120
kN, P2 = 220 kN and P4 = 160 kN.
Determine the net change in the length of the member. Take
E = 200 GN/m2.
Given: area and length of AB: 1600 mm2, 0.75 m ;
area and length of BC: 625 mm2, 1.0 m;
area and length of CD: 900mm2, 1.2 m.
A B
C D

P1 P2 P3 P4
 LECTURE 17
Contents:
Expression for deformation of a tapered
bar
Expression for deformation of a tapered
flat
Application problems

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Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar
of circular cross section shown in the figure, when subjected to
an axial tensile load , W

W W
A B
Diameter
d1 L
Diameter
d2
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A

W W
A
B
d1 x d2
dx
d 2  d1  d
2

Diameter at x,  d1  x c/s area at x,  1
4
 d1  kx2
L 4
 d1  k  x
 
 PL   Wdx 
Change in length over a    
length dx is  AE  dx   d  kx2  E 
1
4 
 
Change in length over a L Wdx 
  
length L is 0
  d  kx2  E 
 1 
4 
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A
 
 
Change in length over a L
 
Wdx

length L is 0
  d  kx2  E 
 1 
4 
 dt  Put d1+kx = t,
 W 
L
  k  Then k dx = dt
0
  t 2  E 
 
4 
L L L
4W  t 
 2 1
4W   1  4W  1 
        
Ek   1  0 Ek  t  0 Ek (
 1 d  kx) 0
4WL WL
 
Ed1d 2 d1d 2  E
4
Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar
AB of rectangular cross section and uniform thickness, as
shown in the figure, when subjected to an axial tensile load ,W.

W W d2
d1
A B
b
L b
 W W d2
d1
A B
b
b
x dx
Consider an element of length, δx at a distance x from A

depth at x,  d1 
d 2  d1   x c/s area at x,  d1  kxb
L
 d1  k  x
 PL   Wdx 
Change in length over a     
length dx is  AE  dx  d1  kxb  E 
Change in length over a L  Wdx 
   
length L is 0
 d1  kxb  E 

P
 log e d 2  log e d1 
b E k
2.302  P  L
 log d 2  log d1 
b  E  d 2  d1 
N7. Find the modulus of elasticity of the material of a
tapering bar from the following data: The bar has 20 mm
diameter at one end, 40 mm diameter at the other, length
1.0 m and axial load of 10 kN. The elongation observed
was 0.1 mm.
N8. A tapered bar of rectangular cross section is 20 mm
wide at one end and 40 mm wide at the other, 8 mm thick
and 800 mm long. The elongation of 0.08 mm was
observed under load P. find the load P, if the modulus of
elasticity of the material of the bar is 100 GPa.
N9. A uniform steel rod of diameter 20 mm is connected to an aluminium rod of diameter
60 mm at one end. The aluminium rod tapers to a diameter of 20 mm at the other end.
The steel rod is 0.6 m long and is connected rigidly to 60 mm diameter end of the
aluminium rod which is 0.4 m long. If E = 200 GPa for steel and 70 GPa for aluminium,
find the total extension under an axial load of 30 kN.
 LECTURE 18
Contents:

Shear stress
Shear strain
Modulus of rigidity
State of simple shear & Complementary shear
Direct stress due to pure shear

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SHEAR STRESS
 SHEAR STRESS

P
P
R
R
P P
Fig. a Fig. b Fig. c

Shear resistance R P
Shear stress( )   
Area resisting shear A A

This shear stress will always be tangential to the area on

which it acts
SHEAR STRAIN

τ B' τ
B C B C C'

A D A D
τ τ
Fig. d Fig. e
BB
shear strain   tan   
AB

Shear modulus:
Shear stress ( )
 constant  G  Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
Shear strain ( )
Examples of Shear
 State of simple shear
P
A B

D C
P
(a)
(b)
P τ
A B A B

P' P' τ' τ'

D C
D C
P
τ
(c) (d)
 State of simple shear

Consider an element ABCD in a strained material

subjected to shear stress, τ as shown in the figure

τ
A B

D C
τ
Force on the face AB = P = τ × AB × t
Where, t is the thickness of the
element.
Force on the face DC is also equal to
P
 State of simple shear

Now consider the equilibrium of the element.

(i.e., ΣFx = 0, ΣFy = 0, ΣM = 0.)
P
A B
For the force diagram shown,
ΣFx = 0, & ΣFy = 0,
But ΣM = 0
D C
P
The element is subjected
force
to a clockwise moment
P × AD = (τ × AB × t) × AD
But, as the element is actually in equilibrium, there must be
another pair of forces say P' acting on faces AD and BC,
such that they produce a anticlockwise moment equal to ( P
× AD )
 State of simple shear

A
P B
P ' × AB = P × AD
= (τ × AB × t)× AD ----- (1) P' P'
D C
P
If τ1 is the intensity of the shear
stress on the faces AD and BC,
then P ' can be written as, τ B
A
P ' = τ ' × AD × t
τ' τ'
D C
Equn.(1) can be written as τ

(τ ' × AD× t ) × AB = (τ × AB × t) × AD ----- (1)

τ' =τ
 State of simple shear

Thus in a strained material a shear stress is always

accompanied by a balancing shear of same intensity at
right angles to itself. This balancing shear is called
“complementary shear”.
τ
A B
The shear and the
complementary shear together τ'= τ τ'= τ
constitute a state of simple
D C
shear τ
 Direct stress due to pure shear
τ A τ
B A
A B The picture can't be display ed.

a a
τ a a
τ a τ τ
a
D C D C
D C
τ τ X
Fig.(a). Fig.(b). A σn
τ a
a
D C
τ Fig.(c).

For equilibrium,
Direct stress due to pure shear

Therefore the intensity of normal tensile stress

developed on plane BD is numerically equal to the
intensity of shear stress.

Similarly it can be proved that the intensity of

compressive stress developed on plane AC is
numerically equal to the intensity of shear stress.
N10. To check the bond strength between
reinforcing bars and concrete, a tensile force
of P=30 kN is applied to the end of the bar of
diameter d=12 mm and length L= 100 mm.
Calculate the average shear stress developed
between steel and concrete.
N11. A hole is to be punched out of a plate having an
ultimate shear stress of 300 MPa. If the compressive stress
in the punch is limited to 400 MPa,
determine:
(a) Maximum thickness of the plate for which a 100 mm
dia hole can be punched.
(b) If the plate is 10mm thick, smallest diameter hole that
can be punched.

Ans:
t=33.33 mm
d=30 mm
 LECTURE 19
Contents:

POISSON’S RATIO
VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
BULK MODULUS
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLUMETRIC
STRAIN AND LINEAR STRAIN

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POISSON’S RATIO

Fig.(a)

or
 General case:

x y z
Strain in X-direction = x   
E E E

y x z
Strain in Y-direction = y   
E E E

z y x
Strain in Z-direction = z   
E E E
Bulk Modulus

Bulk modulus, K

A body subjected to three mutually perpendicular

equal direct stresses then the ratio of stress to
volumetric strain is called Bulk Modulus.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VOLUMETRIC STRAIN AND
LINEAR STRAIN

dV 
1
 
 1   x  1   y 1   z    1  1   x   y   z   1
 
 x  y z
 change in volume per unit volume
 Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strain

Volumetric Strain
dV
 x y z
V
x y z   y z x  z x y 

              
 E E E   E E E  E E E 
1  2
  x   y   z 
E
For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
N12. A bar of metal 100x50 mm in cross section is 250 mm long.
It carries a tensile load of 400 kN in the direction of its length, a
compressive load of 4000 kN on its 100 mm x 250 mm faces and
a tensile load of 2000 kN on its 50 mm x 250 mm faces. If
E=2x105 N/mm2 and poisson’s ratio is 0.25, find the change in
volume of the bar.
What change must be made in the 4000 kN load in order that
there shall be no change in volume of the bar.
 4000kN

50 400kN
100 Stresses in different
2000kN 250
directions
4000  1000 N
y   160 MPa
250  100mm 2

400  1000 N
50
x   80 MPa
100  50mm 2

100
250
2000  1000 N
z   160 MPa
250  50mm 2
 Stresses in different direction
160 MPa

80MPa
x y z
x   
160MPa
E E E
 80  160  160
x     4  10  4
E E E
l x l x
  4  10  4
lx 250
l x  0.1mm
 160MPa

80 MPa

160MPa
y x z
y   
E E E

 160  80  160
y 
E

E

E
  1.110 3  
l y l y
ly

50

  1.110 3 
l y  0.005mm
 160 MPa

80MPa

z y x
160MPa
z   
E E E

 160  160  80
z 
E

E

E
  9  10  4  

l z l z
lz

250

  9  10  4 
l z  0.09mm
 160MPa To find change in volume
dV
 x y z
80 MPa V
dV
160MPa  4  11  910  4  2 10  4
V
   
dV  2 10  4  V  2 10  4  250 100  50
dV  250mm3
Alternatively,
dV 1  2 
  x   y   z 
V E
dV 1  2 
  80  160  160
V E
1 - 2
 80  2 10 4
E
The change in value that should be made in 4000kN load, in
order that there should be no change in the volume of the bar.

4000kN

400kN
50
100

2000kN 250
 160 MPa
We know that

dV 1  2
80MPa
  x   y   z 
160MPa
V E
In order that change in volume to be
zero 1  2
0  x  y  z 
E
 80   y  160  0  x  y  z  0
 y  240MPa
Py
 240 
250 100
Py  6000kN The change in value should be an
addition of 2000kN compressive force
in Y-direction
N13. A bar of steel 40 mm x 40 mm cross section and 150
mm long is subjected to a tensile load of 200 kN along its
longitudinal axis and tensile load of 600 kN and 400 kN
along lateral axis.
Find,
(a) Change in each dimension and change in volume
(b) What longitudinal force alone can produce same
longitudinal strain as in case (a).

Given E= 200 GPa μ=0.3

 LECTURE 20
Contents:
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E, G AND K
APPLICATION PROBLEMS

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Relationship between young’s modulus of
elasticity (E) and modulus of rigidity (G) :-

A1 A B1 B
45˚ a
H
a
φ τ
φ

D C
τ
Consider a square element ABCD of side ‘a’ subjected to pure
shear‘τ’. DA'B'C is the deformed shape due to shear τ.
Drop a perpendicular AH to diagonal A'C.
Strain in the diagonal AC = τ /E – μ (- τ /E) [ σ n= τ ]
= τ /E [ 1 + μ ] -----------(1)
Strain along the diagonal AC=(A'C–AC)/AC=(A'C–
CH)/AC=A'H/AC A1 A B1
H 45˚ a
In Δle AA'H a
Cos 45˚ = A'H/AA' φ φτ
A'H= AA' × 1/√2
AC = √2 × AD ( AC = √ AD2 +AD2) D C
τ
Strain along the diagonal AC = AA'/ (√2 × √2 × AD)=φ/2 ----(2)
Modulus of rigidity = G = τ /φ
φ = τ /G
Substituting in (2)
Strain along the diagonal AC = τ /2G -----------(3)
Equating (1) & (3)
τ /2G = τ /E[1+μ]
E=2G(1+ μ)
 Relationship between E, G, and K:-

We have A1 A B1
E = 2G( 1+ μ) -----------(1) H 45˚
a
a
E = 3K( 1-2μ) -----------(2) φ φτ
Equating (1) & (2)
2G( 1+ μ) =3K( 1- 2μ) D
τ C
2G + 2Gμ=3K- 6Kμ
μ= (3K- 2G) /(2G +6K)
Substituting in (1)
E = 2G[ 1+(3K – 2G)/ (2G+6K)]
E = 18GK/( 2G+6K)

E = 9GK/(G+3K)