CVE 202 Lecture Notes - 30062021

CVE 202: Strength of Materials
LOADING TESTS OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS

Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle, depending on the stress-strain
characteristics.
Ductile materials
Any material that can be subjected to large strain before it ruptures is called a ductile
material. Mild steel is a typical example. Engineers often choose ductile materials for
design because these materials are capable of absorbing shock or energy; and if they
become overloaded, they will usually exhibit large deformation before failing. One way to
specify the ductility of a material is to report its percent elongation or percent reduction in
areas at the time of fracture. The percent elongation is the specimen’s fracture strain
expressed as percent. Thus if the specimen’s original length is Lo and its length at fracture
is Lf, then percent elongation
𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑜
= 𝑥 100 %
𝐿
The percentage reduction in area is another way to specify ductility. It is defined as follows:
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥 100 %
𝐴𝑜
Where Ao = Specimen original cross-sectional area
Af = Area of fracture
Other materials that exhibit ductile stress-strain characteristics are brass, molybdenum and
Zinc.
Brittle materials
Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before fracture are referred to as brittle materials.
Cast iron and concrete are examples of brittle materials. Compared with their behaviour in
tension, brittle materials exhibit a much higher resistance to axial compression.
In many brittle materials such as rock, concrete, cast iron or soil, tensile strength is
negligible compared to the compressive strength for many engineering applications.
ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THEM

For most engineering materials, a relationship exists between stress and strain. For each
increment in stress, there is a closely proportional increase in strain, provided that a certain
limit of stress is not exceeded. If the induced stress exceeds this limiting value, the
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corresponding strain will no longer be proportional to the stress. This limiting value is
called the proportional limit and may be concisely defined as that value of stress up to
which strain is proportional to stress.
Figure 1: Stress-strain diagram

The values of stress and strain can be plotted on a stress-strain diagram as shown in Figure
1. The ratio of stress to strain, which is also the slope of the line drawn from the origin and
joining the plotted points is constant.
Mathematically,
𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵
= = Constant
𝜖𝐴 𝜖𝐵
The Constant is known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus. The modulus of
elasticity for members in tension or compression is generally represented by the expression
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
𝐸 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (Hooke’s law)
𝜖
Physically, the modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a material in its

response to an applied load and represents a definite property of that material. Material
stiffness may be defined as the property that enables a material to withstand high stress
without great strain.
As with axially loaded bodies in tension and compression, the shear stress is proportional
to the shear strain, as long as the proportional limit in shear has not been exceeded. This
constant of proportionality is known as the modulus of elasticity in shear or the modulus
of rigidity. It is denoted by G and expressed as
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑠
𝐺= =
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜖𝑠
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The expressions for stress, strain and modulus of elasticity, E may now be combined to
develop convenient expression, to determine directly the total deformation δ for a member.
Substitute for stress and strain in the definition (expression) of modulus of elasticity,
𝜎 𝑃/𝐴 𝑃𝐿
𝐸= = = 𝐴𝛿
𝜖 𝛿/𝐿
Where δ = the total axial deformation (in mm)

P = the total applied external axial load (N)
L = the length of the member (in mm)
A = the cross-sectional area of the member (m2, mm2)
E = the modulus of elasticity (Pa, MPa)
Example 1
A 13 mm diameter Aluminium specimen is subjected to a tension test. After rupture, the
two pieces are fitted back together. The distance between gauge points originally 50 mm
is measured 71 mm and the final diameter of the specimen is measured to be 10 mm.
calculate the percentage elongation and the percentage reduction in area.
Solution
Given:
Original length, Lo = 50 mm
Final length, Lf = 71 mm
Original diameter, D = 13 mm
Final diameter, d = 10 mm
𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑜
(i) 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100 %
𝐿𝑜
71−50
= 𝑥 100 % = 42 %
50
𝐴𝑜−𝐴𝑓
(ii) 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥 100 %
𝐴𝑜
Original area = πD2/4 = 0.7854 x 132 = 132.73 mm2

Final area = πD2/4 = 0.7854 x 102 = 78.54 mm2
132.73 −78.54
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥 100 % = 40.83 %
132.73
Example 2
A steel bar of cross section 500 mm2 is acted upon by the forces shown in Figure E2a.
Determine the total elongation of the bar. For steel, consider E = 200 GPa.
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Figure E2
Solution
The entire bar is in equilibrium, and hence are all portions of it. The portion between A and
B has a resultant force of 50 kN acting over every cross section and a free-body diagram
of this 0.6-m length appears as in Figure E2b. The force at the right end of this segment
must be 50 kN to maintain equilibrium with the applied load at A.
The elongation of this portion is given as:
𝑃1𝐿1 50000 𝑥 0.6
𝛿1 = = (500 𝑥 10−6 )𝑥 (200 𝑥 109 )
= 0.0003 m
𝐴𝐸
The force acting in the segment between B and C is found by considering the algebraic sum
of the forces to the left of any section between B and C, i.e., a resultant force of 35 kN acts
to the left, so that a tensile force exists. The free-body diagram of the segment between B
and C is shown in Figure E2c and the elongation is:
𝑃2𝐿2 35000 𝑥 1
𝛿2 = = (500 𝑥 10−6 )𝑥 (200 𝑥 109 )
= 0.00035 m
𝐴𝐸
Similarly, the force acting over any cross section between C and D must be 45 kN to
maintain equilibrium with the applied load at D. The elongation of CD is:
𝑃3𝐿3 45000 𝑥 1.25
𝛿3 = = (500 𝑥 10−6 )𝑥 (200 𝑥 109 )
= 0.00056 m
𝐴𝐸
Therefore, the total elongation is

δ = δ1 + δ2 + δ3 = 0.0003 + 0.00035 + 0.00056 = 0.00121 m = 1.21 mm
Example 3
A hollow steel cylinder surrounds a solid copper cylinder and the assembly is subjected to
an axial loading of 200 kN as shown in Figure E3a. The cross-sectional area of the steel is
20 cm2, while that of the copper is 60 cm2. Both cylinders are the same length (500 mm)
before the load is applied. Determine the temperature rise of the entire system required to
place all of the load on the copper cylinder. The cover plate at the top of the assembly is
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rigid. For copper, E = 100 GPa, α = 17 × 10–6/°C; while for steel, E = 200 GPa, α = 12 ×
10–6/°C.
Figure E3
Solution
One method of analyzing this problem is to assume that the load as well as the upper cover
plate are removed and that the system is allowed to freely expand vertically because of a
temperature rise ∆T. In that case, the upper ends of the cylinders assume the positions
shown by the dashed lines in Figure E3b.
The copper cylinder naturally expands upward more than the steel one because the
coefficient of linear expansion of copper is greater than that of steel.
The upward expansion of the steel cylinder is:
δs = αsLs∆T = 12 x 10-6 x (0.5∆T)
Also, the upward expansion of the copper cylinder is:
δc = αcLc∆T = 17 x 10-6 x (0.5∆T)
This is not of course the true situation because the load of 200 kN has not as yet been
considered. If all of this axial load is carried by the copper then only the copper will be
compressed and the compression of the copper is given as:
𝑃𝐿 200000 𝑥 0.50
𝛿𝑐 = = (60 𝑥 10−4 )𝑥 (100 𝑥 109 )
= 1.667 x 10-4 m
𝐴𝐸
The condition of the problem states that the temperature rise ∆T is just sufficient so that all
of the load is carried by the copper. Thus, the expanded length of the copper indicated by
the dashed lines in the sketch will be decreased by the action of the force. The net expansion
of the copper is the expansion caused by the rise of temperature minus the compression
due to the load. The change of length of the steel is due only to the temperature rise.
Consequently, we have
(17 x 10−6)(0.50)∆T −1.667 x 10−4 = (12 x 10−6)(0.50)∆T
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O,0000025∆T = 1.667 x 10−4

Therefore, ∆T = 66.68oC
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CVE 202 Lecture Notes - 30062021

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CVE 202: Strength of Materials

LOADING TESTS OF DUCTILE AND BRITTLE MATERIALS

ELASTIC CONSTANTS AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THEM

Figure 1: Stress-strain diagram

Physically, the modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a material in its

Where δ = the total axial deformation (in mm)

Original area = πD2/4 = 0.7854 x 132 = 132.73 mm2

Therefore, the total elongation is

O,0000025∆T = 1.667 x 10−4

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