Stress

Stress-strain Diagram
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine.

As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the
gauge length is measured at each increment of the load and this is continued until
failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the original cross-sectional area and
length of the specimen, the normal stress and the strain can be obtained. The
graph of these quantities with the stress along the y-axis and the strain along
the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in
form for various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbon
structural steel.
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or

brittle materials. A ductile material is one having relatively large
tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural steel and
aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain
up to the point of rupture like cast iron and concrete. An
arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the
dividing line between these two classes.
Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)
From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a
straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was
first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the
proportional limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or
or =k=k
The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or Young's
Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to P. Then
=E=E
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e
developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is
entirely removed.
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its
original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may e
developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is
entirely removed.
Elastic and Plastic Ranges
The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The region
from P to R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or
yielding without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile
strength.
Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the
breaking strength.
Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to P, in Nm/m3. This may be calculated as the area under
the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in
the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating
a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is
gradually increased from O to R, in Nm/m3. This may be calculated as the area under
the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is its ability to
absorb energy without causing it to break.
Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The
maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The
allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit.
However, since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress
is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The
ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the
factor of safety.
Problem 203
The following data were recorded during the tensile test of a 14-mm-diameter mild
steel rod. The gage length was 50 mm.
Load (N) Elongation (mm) Load (N) Elongation (mm)

0 0 46 200 1.25
6 310 0.010 52 400 2.50
12 600 0.020 58 500 4.50
18 800 0.030 68 000 7.50
25 100 0.040 59 000 12.5
31 300 0.050 67 800 15.5
37 900 0.060 65 000 20.0
40 100 0.163 65 500 Fracture
41 600 0.433
Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties: (a)
proportional limits; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) yield point; (d) ultimate strength; and
(e) rupture strength.
Solution 203
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Area, A = 0.25(142) = 49 mm2
Length, L = 50 mm
Strain = Elongation/Length
Stress = Load/Area
Load (N) Elongation (mm) Strain (mm/mm) Stress (MPa)

0 0 0 0
6 310 0.010 0.0002 40.99
12 600 0.020 0.0004 81.85
18 800 0.030 0.0006 122.13
25 100 0.040 0.0008 163.05
31 300 0.050 0.001 203.33
37 900 0.060 0.0012 246.20
40 100 0.163 0.0033 260.49
41 600 0.433 0.0087 270.24
46 200 1.250 0.025 300.12
52 400 2.500 0.05 340.40
58 500 4.500 0.09 380.02
68 000 7.500 0.15 441.74
59 000 12.500 0.25 383.27
67 800 15.500 0.31 440.44
65 000 20.000 0.4 422.25
61 500 Failure 399.51
From stress-strain diagram:

1. Proportional Limit = 246.20 MPa
2. Modulus of Elasticity
E = slope of stress-strain diagram within proportional limi
E = 246.20/0.0012 = 205 166.67 MPa = 205.2 GPa
3. Yield Point = 270.24 MPa
4. Ultimate Strength = 441.74 MPa
5. Rupture Strength = 399.51 MPa
Problem 204
The following data were obtained during a tension test of an aluminum alloy. The initial
diameter of the test specimen was 0.505 in. and the gage length was 2.0 in.
Load (lb) Elongation (in.) Load (lb) Elongation (in.)

0 0 14 000 0.020
2 310 0.00220 14 400 0.025
4 640 0.00440 14 500 0.060
6 950 0.00660 14 600 0.080
9 290 0.00880 14 800 0.100
11 600 0.0110 14 600 0.120
12 600 0.0150 13 600 Fracture
Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties: (a)
proportional limit; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) yield point; (d) yield strength at 0.2%
offset; (e) ultimate strength; and (f) rupture strength.
Solution 204
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Area, A = 0.25(0.5052) = 0.0638 in2
Length, L = 2 in
Strain = Elongation/Length
Stress = Load/Area
Load (lb) Elongation (in.) Strain (in/in) Stress (psi)
0 0 0 0
2 310 0.0022 0.0011 11 532.92
4 640 0.0044 0.0022 23 165.70
6 950 0.0066 0.0033 34 698.62
9 290 0.0088 0.0044 46 381.32
11 600 0.011 0.0055 57 914.24
12 600 0.015 0.0075 62 906.85
14 000 0.02 0.01 69 896.49
14 400 0.025 0.0125 71 893.54
14 500 0.06 0.03 72 392.80
14 600 0.08 0.04 72 892.06
14 800 0.1 0.05 73 890.58
14 600 0.12 0.06 72 892.06
13 600 Fracture 67 899.45
From stress-strain diagram:

1. Proportional Limit = 57,914.24 psi
2. Modulus of Elasticity:
E = 57914.24/0.0055 = 10,529,861.82 psi
E = 10,529.86 ksi
3. Yield Point = 69,896.49 psi
4. Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset:

Strain of Elastic Limit = at PL + 0.002
Strain of Elastic Limit = 0.0055 + 0.002
Strain of Elastic Limit = 0.0075 in/in
The offset line will pass through Q (See figure below):
Slope of 0.2% offset = E = 10,529,861.82 psi
Test for location:

slope = rise / run
10,529,861.82 = (6989.64 + 4992.61) / run
run = 0.00113793
Slope of EL to YP
1 / 1 = 6989.64/0.0025
1 / 1 = 2 795 856
1 = 1 / 2 795 856
For the required point:

E = (4992.61 + 1) / 1
10 529 861.82 = (4992.61 + 1) / (1 / 2 795 856)
3.7662 1 = 4992.61 + 1
1 = 1804.84 psi
Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset

= EL + 1
= 62906.85 + 1804.84
= 64 711.69 psi
5. Ultimate Strength = 73 890.58 psi
6. Rupture Strength = 67 899.45 psi
7. Problem 206
A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm 2 and a length of 150 m is
suspended vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the
lower end. If the unit mass of steel is 7850 kg/m 3 and E = 200 103 MN/m2,
find the total elongation of the rod.
8. Solution 206
9. HideClick here to show or hide the solution
10. Elongation due to its own weight:
1=PLAE1=PLAE
11. Where:
P = W = 7850(1/1000)3(9.81)[300(150)(1000)]
P = 3465.3825 N
L = 75(1000) = 75 000 mm
A = 300 mm2
E = 200 000 MPa
12. Thus,
1=3465.3825(75000)300(200000)1=3465.3825(75000)300(2
00000)
13. 1=4.33 mm1=4.33 mm
14. Elongation due to applied load:

2=PLAE2=PLAE
15. Where:
P = 20 kN = 20 000 N
L = 150 m = 150 000 mm
A = 300 mm2
E = 200 000 MPa
16. Thus,
2=20000(150000)300(200000)2=20000(150000)300(200000)
2=50 mm2=50 mm
17. Total elongation:

=1+2=1+2
18. =4.33+50=54.33 mm=4.33+50=54.33 mm answer
Ductile Materials:
Ductile materials will withstand large strains before the specimen ruptures.
Ductile materials often have relatively small Youngs moduli and ultimate stresses.
Ductile materials exhibit large strains and yielding before they fail.
Steel and aluminum usually fall in the class of Ductile Materials
Brittle Materials:
Brittle materials fracture at much lower strains.
Brittle materials often have relatively large Youngs moduli and ultimate stresses.
Brittle materials fail suddenly and without much warning.
Glass and cast iron fall in the class of Brittle Materials.

Types of Stresses are:
1. Tensile Stress: Because of pull type of loading, the stress developed in the material is called as Tensile Stress
2. Compressive Stress: Because of Push-Type of loading, stress developed in the material is called as
Compressive Stress
3. Shear Stress: = FA. A shearing force is applied to the top of the rectangle while the bottom is held in place. ... A
shear stress, often denoted (Greek: tau), is defined as the component of stress coplanar with a material cross
section. Shear stress arises from the force vector component parallel to the cross section.
4. Torsional Shear Stress: Torsion of a square section bar. In the field of solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of
an object due to an applied torque. ... In sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this
section is perpendicular to the radius.
5. Crushing Stress: When a mechanical component is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes (also
called axial compressive forces), then the stress induced in the component is called compressive stress. Examples
of components subjected to compressive stress : Connecting rod, links of structure ,etc.
6. Bearing Stress: Bearing stress is Contact pressure between two separate bodies. It can be defined as
Compression force divided by the characteristic Area perpendicular to it.
7. Bending Stress: A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or
moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The most common or simplest structural element
subjected to bending moments is the beam. The example shows a beam which is simply supported at both ends.

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Stress-strain Diagram

Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Load (N) Elongation (mm) Load (N) Elongation (mm)

HideClick here to show or hide the solution

Load (N) Elongation (mm) Strain (mm/mm) Stress (MPa)

From stress-strain diagram:

3. Yield Point = 270.24 MPa

4. Ultimate Strength = 441.74 MPa

5. Rupture Strength = 399.51 MPa

Load (lb) Elongation (in.) Load (lb) Elongation (in.)

HideClick here to show or hide the solution

From stress-strain diagram:

3. Yield Point = 69,896.49 psi

4. Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset:

The offset line will pass through Q (See figure below):

Slope of 0.2% offset = E = 10,529,861.82 psi

Test for location:

For the required point:

Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset

5. Ultimate Strength = 73 890.58 psi

6. Rupture Strength = 67 899.45 psi

14. Elongation due to applied load:

17. Total elongation:

Steel and aluminum usually fall in the class of Ductile Materials

Brittle materials fail suddenly and without much warning.

Glass and cast iron fall in the class of Brittle Materials.

section is perpendicular to the radius.

of components subjected to compressive stress : Connecting rod, links of structure ,etc.

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