Mechanics of Materials

Adil Akram Mahmood

Second stage

Chapter two
Strain
CHAPTER
2

2.1 Displacement, Deformation, and

the Concept of Strain
In the design of structural elements or machine components, the deformations experienced
by the body because of applied loads often represent a design consideration equally as
important as stress. For this reason, the nature of the deformations experienced by a real
deformable body as a result of internal stress will be studied, and methods to measure or
compute deformations will be established.
y

Displacement H
K
When a system of loads is applied to a machine component or structural element,
individual points of the body generally move. This movement of a point with re-
Position after
spect to some convenient reference system of axes is a vector quantity known as a translation
displacement. In some instances, displacements are associated with a translation K
and rotation
and/or rotation of the body as a whole. The size and shape of the body are not H
changed by this type of displacement, which is termed a rigid-body displacement.
Original position
In Figure 2.1a, consider points H and K on a solid body. If the body is
displaced (both translated and rotated), points H and K will move to new locations x
H  and K . The position vector between H  and K , however, has the same length FIGURE 2.1a Rigid-body displacement.

31
32
STRAIN as the position vector between H and K. In other words, the orientation of H and K relative to
each other does not change when a body undergoes a displacement.

Deformation
When displacements are caused by an applied load or a change in temperature, indi-
vidual points of the body move relative to each other. The change in any dimension
y associated with these load- or temperature-induced displacements is known
as deformation. Figure 2.1b shows a body both before and after a deforma-
tion. For simplicity, the deformation shown in the figure is such that point H
does not change location; however, point K on the undeformed body moves to
Before location K after the deformation. Because of the deformation, the position
deformation After deformation vector between H and K is much longer than the HK vector in the unde-
K formed body. Also, notice that the grid squares shown on the body before
K deformation (Figure 2.1a) are no longer squares after the deformation. Con-
H
sequently, both the size and the shape of the body have been altered by the
deformation.
Under general conditions of loading, deformations will not be uniform
x throughout the body. Some line segments will experience extensions, while
FIGURE 2.1b Deformation of a body. others will experience contractions. Different segments (of the same length)
along the same line may experience different amounts of extension or contrac-
tion. Similarly, angle changes between line segments may vary with position and orientation
in the body. This nonuniform nature of load-induced deformations will be investigated in
more detail in Chapter 13.

Strain
Strain is a quantity used to provide a measure of the intensity of a deformation (deforma-
tion per unit length) just as stress is used to provide a measure of the intensity of an internal
force (force per unit area). In Sections 1.2 and 1.3, two types of stresses were defined: nor-
mal stresses and shear stresses. The same classification is used for strains. Normal strain,
designated by the Greek letter  (epsilon), is used to provide a measure of the elongation
or contraction of an arbitrary line segment in a body during deformation. Shear strain,
designated by the Greek letter  (gamma), is used to provide a measure of angular distor-
tion (change in angle between two lines that are orthogonal in the undeformed state). The
deformation, or strain, may be the result of a change in temperature, of a stress, or of some
other physical phenomenon such as grain growth or shrinkage. In this book, only strains
resulting from changes in temperature or stress are considered.

2.2 Normal Strain

Average Normal Strain
The deformation (change in length and width) of a simple bar under an axial load (see
L  Figure 2.2) can be used to illustrate the idea of a normal strain. The average normal strain
avg over the length of the bar is obtained by dividing the axial deformation  of the bar by
its initial length L; thus,
O 
avg  (2.1)
L
FIGURE 2.2 Normal strain. The symbol  is used to denote the deformation in the axial member.
 33
NORMAL STRAIN

Accordingly, a positive value of  indicates that the axial member gets longer, and a
negative value of  indicates that the axial member gets shorter (termed contraction).

A normal strain in an axial

Normal Strain at a Point member is also termed an
axial strain.
In those cases in which the deformation is nonuniform along the length of the bar (e.g., a
long bar hanging under its own weight), the average normal strain given by Equation (2.1)
may be significantly different from the normal strain at an arbitrary point O along the bar.
The normal strain at a point can be determined by decreasing the length over which the
actual deformation is measured. In the limit, a quantity defined as the normal strain at the
point (O) is obtained. This limit process is indicated by the expression

 d
(O)  lim  (2.2)
L 0 L dL

Strain Units
Equations (2.1) and (2.2) indicate that normal strain is a dimensionless quantity; however,
normal strains are frequently expressed in units of in./in., mm/mm, m/m, in./in., m/m,
or . The symbol  in the context of strain is spoken as “micro,” and it denotes a factor of
106. The conversion from dimensionless quantities such as in./in. or m/m to units of
“microstrain” (such as in./in., m/m, or ) is

1   1  106 in./in.  1  106 m/m

Since normal strains are small, dimensionless numbers, it is also convenient to express
strains in terms of percent. For most engineered objects made from metals and alloys,
normal strains seldom exceed values of 0.2%, which is equivalent to 0.002 m/m.

Measuring Normal Strains Experimentally

Normal strains can be measured with a simple component called a strain gage. The
common strain gage (Figure 2.3) consists of a thin metal-foil grid that is bonded to the
surface of a machine part or a structural element. When loads (and also temperature
changes) are applied, the object being tested elongates or contracts, creating normal strains. Plastic
Since the strain gage is bonded to the object, it undergoes the same strain as the object. As backing
the strain gage elongates or contracts, the electrical resistance of the metal-foil grid changes Alignment
Metal-foil
proportionately. The relationship between strain in the gage and its corresponding resis- sensing marks
tance change is predetermined by the strain gage manufacturer through a calibration pro- grid
cedure for each type of gage. Consequently, precise measurement of resistance change in
Solder
the gage serves as an indirect measure of strain. Strain gages are accurate and extremely tabs
sensitive, enabling normal strains as small as 1  to be measured. Applications involving FIGURE 2.3
strain gages will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 13.

Sign Conventions for Normal Strains

From the definitions given by Equation (2.1) and Equation (2.2), normal strain is positive
when the object elongates and negative when the object contracts. In general, elongation
will occur if the axial stress in the object is tension. Therefore, positive normal strains are
referred to as tensile strains. The opposite will be true for compressive axial stresses; there-
fore, negative normal strains are referred to as compressive strains.
34
STRAIN

In developing the concept of normal strain through example problems and exercises, it
is convenient to use the notion of a rigid bar. A rigid bar is meant to represent an object
that undergoes no deformation of any kind. Depending on how it is supported, the rigid
bar may translate (i.e., move up/down or left/right) or rotate about a support location
(see Example 2.1), but it does not bend or deform in any way regardless of the loads
acting on it. If a rigid bar is straight before loads are applied, then it will be straight after
loads are applied. The bar may translate or rotate, but it will remain straight.

EXAMPLE 2.1

A rigid bar ABCD is pinned at A and supported by two

steel rods connected at B and C, as shown. There is no
(2) strain in the vertical rods before load P is applied.
After load P is applied, the normal strain in rod (2) is
800 ␮␧. Determine
2.7 m (a) the axial normal strain in rod (1).
(1) (b) the axial normal strain in rod (1) if there is a
1.5 m 1-mm gap in the connection between the rigid
bar and rod (2) before the load is applied.
Rigid bar
Plan the Solution
A B C D For this problem, the definition of normal strain will
be used to relate strain and elongation for each rod.
2.0 m 2.5 m
Since the rigid bar is pinned at A, it will rotate about
0.5 m P the support; however, it will remain straight. The
deflections at points B, C, and D along the rigid bar
can be determined by similar triangles. In part (b), the 1-mm gap will cause an increased
rigid bar deflection at C, and this will in turn lead to increased strain in rod (1).
SOLUTION
(a) The normal strain is given for rod (2); therefore, the deformation in the rod can be
computed as follows:
␦2 1 mm/mm 
2  ⬖ ␦2  2 L2   800 ε  2,700 mm   2.16 mm
L2 1,000,000 ε
To compute the deformation, note that the given strain value ␧2 must be converted from units
of ␮␧ into dimensionless units (i.e., mm/mm). Since the strain is positive, rod (2) elongates.
Since rod (2) is connected to the rigid bar and since rod (2) elongates, the rigid bar
must deflect 2.16 mm downward at joint C. However, rigid bar ABCD is supported by a
pin at joint A, and deflection is prevented at its left end. Therefore, rigid bar ABCD rotates
about pin A. Sketch the configuration of the rotated rigid bar, showing the deflection that
takes place at C. Sketches of this type are known as deformation diagrams.
Although the deflections are very small, they have been greatly exaggerated here for
clarity in the sketch. For problems of this type, a small-deflection approximation is used:

sin ␪  tan ␪  ␪

where ␪ is the rotation angle of the rigid bar in radians.

 To clearly distinguish between elongations 4.5 m
that occur in the rods and deflections at locations
2.0 m
along the rigid bar, rigid bar transverse deflections
A B C D
(i.e., deflections up or down in this case) will be
denoted by the symbol v. Therefore, the rigid bar vB = 1
deflection at joint C is designated vC. vC = 2
We will assume that there is a perfect fit in the
pin connection at joint C; therefore, the rigid bar
deflection at C is equal to the elongation that occurs
in rod (2) (vC   2).
From the deformation diagram of the rigid bar geometry, the rigid bar deflection at
joint B (vB) can be determined from similar triangles:
vB v 2.0 m
 C ⬖ vB   2.16 mm  0.96 mm
2.0 m 4.5 m 4.5 m
If there is a perfect fit in the connection between rod (1) and the rigid bar at joint B, rod
(1) elongates by an amount equal to the rigid bar deflection at B; hence,  1  vB. Knowing
the deformation produced in rod (1), we can now compute its strain:

1 0.96 mm
1    0.000640 mm/mm  640 ε Ans.
L1 1,500 mm

(b) As in part (a), the deformation in the rod can be computed from

2 1 mm/mm
2  ⬖ 2 = 2 L2 = (800 ε) (2,700 mm)  2.16 mm
L2 1,000,000 ε
Sketch the configuration of the rotated
rigid bar for case (b). In this case, there is
4.5 m
a 1-mm gap between rod (2) and the rigid
2.0 m
bar at C. This means that the rigid bar
deflects 1 mm downward at C before it A B C D
begins to stretch rod (2). The total deflec- vB = 1
tion of C is made up of the 1-mm gap plus 2
vC = 2 + 1 mm
the elongation that occurs in rod (2); hence,
vC  2.16 mm  1 mm  3.16 mm.
1 mm
As before, the rigid bar deflection at
joint B (vB) can be determined from similar
triangles:
vB v 2.0 m
 C ⬖ vB  3.16 mm  1.404 mm
2.0 m 4.5 m 4.5 m

Since there is a perfect fit in the connection between rod (1) and the rigid bar at joint B,
 1  vB, and the strain in rod (1) can be computed:

1 1.404 mm
1    0.000936 mm/mm  936 ε Ans.
L1 1,500 mm

Compare the rod (1) strains for cases (a) and (b). Notice that a very small gap at C caused
the strain in rod (1) to increase markedly.

35
 MecMovies Example M2.1
A rigid steel bar ABC is supported by three rods. There is no strain in the
rods before load P is applied. After load P is applied, the axial strain in rod
(1) is 1,200 .
(a) Determine the axial strain in rods (2).
(b) Determine the axial strain in rods (2) if there is a 0.5-mm gap in the
connections between rods (2) and the rigid bar before the load is
applied.

MecMovies Example M2.2

A rigid steel bar ABC is pinned at B and supported by two rods at A and C.
There is no strain in the rods before load P is applied. After load P is applied,
the axial strain in rod (1) is 910 . Determine the axial strain in rod (2).

MecMovies Example M2.4

The load P produces an axial strain of 1,800  in post (2).
Determine the axial strain in rod (1).

36
 MecMovies Exercises
M
M2.1 A rigid horizontal bar ABC is supported by three vertical M2.3 Use normal strain concepts for four introductory problems
rods. There is no strain in the rods before load P is applied. After using these two structural configurations.
load P is applied, the axial strain is a specified value. Determine the
deflection of the rigid bar at B and the normal strain in rods (2) if
there is a specified gap between rod (1) and the rigid bar before the
load is applied.

FIGURE M2.1

FIGURE M2.3
M2.2 A rigid steel bar AB is pinned at A and supported by two
rods. There is no strain in the rods before load P is applied. After
load P is applied, the axial strain in rod (1) is a specified value.
Determine the axial strain in rod (2) and the downward deflection
of the rigid bar at B.

FIGURE M2.2

37
PROBLEMS
P2.1 When an axial load is applied to the ends of the bar shown
in Figure P2.1, the total elongation of the bar between joints A and
C is 0.15 in. In segment (2), the normal strain is measured as (1) (1)
1,300 ␮in./in. Determine (2)
(a) the elongation of segment (2). L1
(b) the normal strain in segment (1) of the bar. L2

A B C
P (1) (2) P Rigid bar

A B C
P
40 in. 90 in.
FIGURE P2.3
FIGURE P2.1

P2.4 A rigid bar ABCD is supported by two bars, as shown in Fig-

P2.2 The two bars shown in Figure P2.2 are used to support a ure P2.4. There is no strain in the vertical bars before load P is applied.
load P. When unloaded, joint B has coordinates (0, 0). After load After load P is applied, the normal strain in rod (1) is ⫺570 ␮m/m.
P is applied, joint B moves to the coordinate position (0.35 in., Determine
⫺0.60 in.). Assume a ⫽ 11 ft, b ⫽ 6 ft, and h ⫽ 8 ft. Determine
the normal strain in each bar. (a) the normal strain in rod (2).
(b) the normal strain in rod (2) if there is a 1-mm gap in the
connection at pin C before the load is applied.
(c) the normal strain in rod (2) if there is a 1-mm gap in the
a b connection at pin B before the load is applied.

A C

y h
(2)

x 1,500 mm
B 240 mm 360 mm 140 mm

P Rigid bar
FIGURE P2.2
A B C D

900 mm
P2.3 A rigid steel bar is supported by three rods, as shown in (1) P
Figure P2.3. There is no strain in the rods before the load P is
applied. After load P is applied, the normal strain in rods
(1) is 860 ␮m/m. Assume initial rod lengths of L1 ⫽ 2,400 mm and FIGURE P2.4
L2 ⫽ 1,800 mm. Determine
(a) the normal strain in rod (2).
(b) the normal strain in rod (2) if there is a 2-mm gap in the
connections between the rigid bar and rods (1) at joints A and P2.5 In Figure P2.5, rigid bar ABC is supported by a pin con-
C before the load is applied. nection at B and two axial members. A slot in member (1) allows
(c) the normal strain in rod (2) if there is a 2-mm gap in the the pin at A to slide 0.25 in. before it contacts the axial member.
connection between the rigid bar and rod (2) at joint B before If the load P produces a compression normal strain in member (1)
the load is applied. of ⫺1,300 ␮in./in., determine the normal strain in member (2).

38
 Sanding sleeve

(2)
D
160 in.
20 in.

B
C
9 in. Mandrel
12 in.
P FIGURE P2.6
(1)
P2.7 The normal strain in a suspended bar of material of vary-
A ing cross section due to its own weight is given by the expression
 y3E, where  is the specific weight of the material, y is the dis-
tance from the free (i.e., bottom) end of the bar, and E is a material
32 in. 0.25 in.
constant. Determine, in terms of , L, and E the following:
FIGURE P2.5 (a) the change in length of the bar due to its own weight
(b) the average normal strain over the length L of the bar
(c) the maximum normal strain in the bar
P2.6 The sanding-drum mandrel shown in Figure P2.6 is P2.8 A steel cable is used to support an elevator cage at the
made for use with a hand drill. The mandrel is made from a bottom of a 2,000-ft-deep mineshaft. A uniform normal strain of
rubber-like material that expands when the nut is tightened to 250 in./in. is produced in the cable by the weight of the cage. At
secure the sanding sleeve placed over the outside surface. If the each point, the weight of the cable produces an additional normal
diameter D of the mandrel increases from 2.00 in. to 2.15 in. as strain that is proportional to the length of the cable below the point.
the nut is tightened, determine If the total normal strain in the cable at the cable drum (upper end
(a) the average normal strain along a diameter of the mandrel. of the cable) is 700 in./in., determine
(b) the circumferential strain at the outside surface of (a) the strain in the cable at a depth of 500 ft.
the mandrel. (b) the total elongation of the cable.

2.3 Shear Strain

A deformation involving a change in shape (distortion) can be used to illustrate a shear y
strain. An average shear strain avg associated with two reference lines that are orthogonal xy
in the undeformed state (two edges of the element shown in Figure 2.4) can be obtained by x
dividing the shear deformation  x (displacement of the top edge of the element with respect
to the bottom edge) by the perpendicular distance L between these two edges. If the defor-
mation is small, meaning that sin   tan    and cos   1, then shear strain can be
L
defined as

 x
avg  x (2.3) O
L
FIGURE 2.4 Shear strain.
For those cases in which the deformation is nonuniform, the shear strain at a point, xy(O),
associated with two orthogonal reference lines x and y is obtained by measuring the shear
deformation as the size of the element is made smaller and smaller. In the limit,
x d
xy (O)  lim  x (2.4)
L 0 L dL

39
40
STRAIN Since shear strain is defined as the tangent of the angle of distortion, which is equal to the
angle in radians for small angles, an equivalent expression for shear strain that is sometimes
useful for calculations is
␲
␥xy (O) ⫽ ⫺ ␪⬘ (2.5)
2
In this expression,  ⬘ is the angle in the deformed state between two initially orthogonal
reference lines.
y

Strain Units
Equations (2.3) through (2.5) indicate that shear strains are dimensionless angular quanti-
␲ – ␥
ties, expressed in radians (rad) or microradians (␮rad). The conversion from radians, a
2 xy dimensionless quantity, to microradians is 1 ␮rad ⫽ 1 × 10⫺6 rad.

x
Measuring Shear Strains Experimentally
FIGURE 2.5a A positive value
for the shear strain xy means that Shear strain is an angular measure, and it is not possible to directly measure the extremely
the angle ⬘ between the x and y small angular changes typical of engineered structures. However, shear strain can be deter-
axes decreases in the deformed mined experimentally by using an array of three strain gages called a strain rosette. Strain
object. rosettes will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 13.

y
Sign Conventions for Shear Strains
Equation (2.5) shows that shear strains will be positive if the angle  ⬘ between the x and y
axes decreases. If the angle ⬘ increases, the shear strain is negative. To state this another
way, Equation (2.5) can be rearranged to give the angle ⬘ in the deformed state between
␲ – ␥ two reference lines that are initially 90° apart:
xy
2
␲
x ␪⬘ ⫽ ⫺ ␥xy
2
FIGURE 2.5b The angle If the value of xy is positive, then the angle  ⬘ in the deformed state will be less than 90°
between the x and y axes (i.e., 2 rad) (Figure 2.5a). If the value of xy is negative, then the angle  ⬘ in the de-
increases when the shear formed state will be greater than 90° (Figure 2.5b). Positive and negative shear strains are
strain xy has a negative value. not given special or distinctive names.

EXAMPLE 2.2
y The shear force V shown causes side QS of the thin rectangular plate to displace
8 in.
downward 0.0625 in. Determine the shear strain xy at P.
R S
Plan the Solution
Shear strain is an angular measure. Determine the angle between the x axis and side PQ
of the deformed plate.
12 in. V
SOLUTION
Determine the angles created by the 0.0625-in. deformation. Note: The small angle
P Q x
0.0625 in.
approximation will be used here; therefore, sin   tan   .

0.0625 in.
␥⫽ ⫽ 0.0078125 rad
8 in.
 In the undeformed plate, the angle at P is ␲兾2 rad. After the plate is deformed, the angle y
8 in.
at P increases. Since the angle after deformation is equal to (␲兾2) ⫺ ␥ , the shear strain
at P must be a negative value. Therefore, the shear strain at P is R S
␥

␥ ⫽ ⫺0.00781 rad Ans.

12 in. V
␲–␥
2
P Q x
0.0625 in.

EXAMPLE 2.3
y 0.50 mm
A thin rectangular plate is uniformly deformed as shown. Determine the shear strain ␥xy at P.
Plan the Solution S
Shear strain is an angular measure. Determine the two angles created by the 0.25-mm R
deflection and the 0.50-mm deflection. Add these two angles to determine the shear
strain at P. 720 mm

SOLUTION 0.25 mm
Determine the angles created by each deformation. Note: The small angle approxima- Q
x
tion will be used here; therefore, sin ␥ ⬇ tan ␥ ⬇ ␥. P
480 mm
0.50 mm
␥1 ⫽ ⫽ 0.000694 rad
720 mm y 0.50 mm
0.25 mm
␥2 ⫽ ⫽ 0.000521 rad S
480 mm
R
The shear strain at P is simply the sum of these two angles: ␥1

␥ ⫽ ␥1 ⫹ ␥2 ⫽ 0.000694 rad ⫹ 0.000521 rad ⫽ 0.001215 rad 720 mm

␲–␥
␥2
⫽ 1,2115 ␮ rad Ans. 2 0.25 mm
Q
Note: The angle at P in the deformed plate is less than ␲兾2, as it should be for a posi- x
tive shear strain. Although not asked for in the problem, the shear strain at corners Q P
480 mm
and R will be negative, having the same magnitude as the shear strain at corner P.

MecMovies
M Example M2.5
A thin triangular plate is uniformly deformed. Determine
the shearing strain at P after point P has been displaced
1 mm downward.

41
PROBLEMS
P2.9 The 16-mm by 22-mm by 25-mm rubber blocks shown in P2.11 A thin polymer plate PQR is deformed so that corner Q
Figure P2.9 are used in a double-U shear mount to isolate the vibra- is displaced downward 1.0 mm to new position Q  as shown in
tion of a machine from its supports. An applied load of P  690 N Figure P2.11. Determine the shear strain at Q  associated with the
causes the upper frame to be deflected downward by 7 mm. Deter- two edges (PQ and QR).
mine the average shear strain and the shear stress in the rubber
blocks.

y
Double U
anti-vibration
shear mount 120 mm 750 mm

x
P R
25

300 mm
P
Q
22
16
1.0 mm
Q
Rubber block FIGURE P2.11
dimensions

Shear deformation
of blocks
FIGURE P2.9
P2.12 A thin square plate is uniformly deformed as
shown in Figure P2.12. Determine the shear strain xy after
deformations
P2.10 A thin polymer plate PQR is deformed such that corner Q
is displaced downward 1/16-in. to new position Q  as shown in (a) at corner P, and
Figure P2.10. Determine the shear strain at Q associated with the (b) at corner Q.
two edges (PQ and QR).

y
y
25 in. 4 in. 25 mm
75 mm

R S
x
P R

10 in.
110 mm 100 mm
Q

—1 in. x
16 P Q
Q 100 mm

FIGURE P2.10 FIGURE P2.12

42
P2.13 A thin square plate is uniformly deformed as shown in P2.14 A thin square plate PQRS is symmetrically deformed into
Figure P2.13. Determine the shear strain xy after deformations the shape shown by the dashed lines in Figure P2.14. For the de-
(a) at corner R, and formed plate, determine
(b) at corner S. (a) the normal strain of diagonal QS.
(a) the shear strain xy at corner P.

y S Undeformed
120 mm
S
Deformed
R 25 mm
P R
249.7 mm x
75 mm
100 mm

Q Q
x
P 250 mm
100 mm
251.2 mm
FIGURE P2.13 FIGURE P2.14

2.4 Thermal Strain

When unrestrained, most engineering materials expand when heated and contract when A material of uniform
cooled. The thermal strain caused by a one-degree (1°) change in temperature is designated composition is called a
by the Greek letter  (alpha) and is known as the coefficient of thermal expansion. The homogeneous material. In
strain due to a temperature change of T is materials of this type, local
variations in composition
can be considered negligible
T    T (2.6)
for engineering purposes.
Furthermore, homogeneous
The coefficient of thermal expansion is approximately constant for a considerable range of
materials cannot be
temperatures. (In general, the coefficient increases with an increase of temperature.) For a
mechanically separated
uniform material (termed a homogeneous material) that has the same mechanical into different materials
properties in every direction (termed an isotropic material), the coefficient applies to all (e.g., carbon fibers in a
dimensions (i.e., all directions). Values of the coefficient of expansion for common materi- polymer matrix). Common
als are included in Appendix D. homogeneous materials are
metals, alloys, ceramics,
glass, and some types
Total Strains of plastics.
Strains caused by temperature changes and strains caused by applied loads are essentially
independent. The total normal strain in a body acted on by both temperature changes and
applied load is given by
An isotropic material has the
same mechanical properties in
total    T (2.7)
all directions.
Since homogeneous, isotropic materials, when unrestrained, expand uniformly in all direc-
tions when heated (and contract uniformly when cooled), neither the shape of the body nor
the shear stresses and shear strains are affected by temperature changes.

43
EXAMPLE 2.4

Bridge Abutment A steel bridge beam has a total length of 150 m. Over the course
beam of a year, the bridge is subjected to temperatures from ⫺40°C to
⫹40°C, and these temperature changes cause the beam to expand
and contract. Expansion joints between the bridge beam and the
supports at the ends of the bridge (called abutments) are installed to
allow this length change to take place without restraint. Determine
the change in length that must be accommodated by the expan-
sion joints. Assume the coefficient of thermal expansion for steel
is 11.9 ⫻ 10⫺6兾°C.

Expansion permitted
Plan the Solution
Determine the thermal strain from Equation (2.6) for the total tem-
Typical “finger-type” expansion joint for bridges. perature variation. The change in length is the product of the ther-
mal strain and the beam length.
SOLUTION
The thermal strain for a temperature variation of 80°C is
␧T ⫽ ␣ ⌬ T ⫽ 冸11.9 ⫻ 10⫺6兾°C 冹 (80°C) ⫽ 0.000952 m/m
The total change in the beam length is, therefore,
␦T ⫽ ␧L ⫽ (0.000952 m/m) (150 m) ⫽ 0.1428 m ⫽ 142.8 mm Ans.
The expansion joint must accommodate at least 142.8 mm of horizontal movement.

EXAMPLE 2.5

Cutting tools such as mills and drills are connected to machining equipment by means of
Cutting tool holders. The cutting tool must be firmly clamped by the tool holder to achieve pre-
tool cise machining, and shrink-fit tool holders take advantage of thermal expansion proper-
ties to achieve this strong, concentric clamping force. To insert a cutting tool, the shrink-
fit holder is rapidly heated while the cutting tool remains at room temperature. When the
holder has expanded sufficiently, the cutting tool drops into the holder. The holder is
then cooled, clamping the cutting tool with a very large force directly on the tool shank.
At 20°C, the cutting tool shank has an outside diameter of 18.000 ⫾ 0.005 mm, and
Shrink-fit the tool holder has an inside diameter of 17.950 ⫾ 0.005 mm. If the tool shank is held at
tool holder 20°C, what is the minimum temperature to which the tool holder must be heated in order to
insert the cutting tool shank? Assume the coefficient of thermal expansion for the tool
holder is 11.9 ⫻ 10 ⫺6兾°C.
Plan the Solution
Use the diameters and tolerances to compute the maximum outside diameter of the
shank and the minimum inside diameter of the holder. The difference between these
two diameters is the amount of expansion that must occur in the holder. For the tool
shank to drop into the holder, the inside diameter of the holder must equal or exceed the
shank diameter.

44
 SOLUTION
The maximum shank outside diameter is 18.000  0.005 mm  18.005 mm. The mini-
mum holder inside diameter is 17.950  0.005 mm  17.945 mm. Therefore, the inside
diameter of the holder must be increased by 18.005  17.945 mm  0.060 mm. To
expand the holder by this amount requires a temperature increase:

0.060 mm
T   Td  0.060 mm ⬖ T   281°C
11.9 106°C (17.945 mm)

Therefore, the tool holder must attain a minimum temperature of

20°C  281°C  301°C Ans.

PROBLEMS
P2.15 An airplane has a half-wingspan of 33 m. Determine the 3-mm gap
change in length of the aluminum alloy [A  22.5 106°C]
wing spar if the plane leaves the ground at a temperature of 15°C
and climbs to an altitude where the temperature is 55°C.
(1) (2)
P2.16 A square 2014-T4 aluminum alloy plate 400 mm on a side C
B
has a 75-mm-diameter circular hole at its center. The plate is heated A
from 20°C to 45°C. Determine the final diameter of the hole. 540 mm 360 mm

P2.17 A cast iron pipe has an inside diameter of d  208 mm FIGURE P2.19
and an outside diameter of D  236 mm. The length of the pipe
is L  3.0 m. The coefficient of thermal expansion for cast iron
is I  12.1 106°C. Determine the dimension changes P2.20 An aluminum pipe has a length of 60 m at a temperature of
caused by an increase in temperature of 70°C. 10°C. An adjacent steel pipe at the same temperature is 5 mm lon-
ger. At what temperature will the aluminum pipe be 15 mm longer
P2.18 At a temperature of 40°F, a 0.08-in. gap exists between than the steel pipe? Assume that the coefficient of thermal expan-
the ends of the two bars shown in Figure P2.18. Bar (1) is an alumi- sion for the aluminum is 22.5 106°C and that the coefficient of
num alloy [  12.5 106°F], and bar (2) is stainless steel thermal expansion for the steel is 12.5 106°C.
[  9.6 106°F]. The supports at A and C are rigid. Determine
the lowest temperature at which the two bars contact each other. P2.21 Determine the movement of the pointer of Figure P2.21
with respect to the scale zero in response to a temperature increase
of 60°F. The coefficients of thermal expansion are 6.6 106°F
(1)
(2) for the steel and 12.5 106°F for the aluminum.

B C
A 7.0 in. 1.5 in.

Smooth pins
+
40 in. 55 in.
0
0.08-in. gap
–
FIGURE P2.18
12 in.
P2.19 At a temperature of 5°C, a 3-mm gap exists between two poly-
mer bars and a rigid support, as shown in Figure P2.19. Bars (1) and (2) Steel Aluminum Steel
have coefficients of thermal expansion of 1  140 106°C and
2  67 106°C, respectively. The supports at A and C are rigid.
Determine the lowest temperature at which the 3-mm gap is closed. FIGURE P2.21

45
P2.22 Determine the horizontal movement of point A of Figure dB  299.75 mm and an outside diameter of DB  310 mm. The
P2.22 due to a temperature increase of 75°C. Assume that member sleeve is to be placed on a steel [S  11.9 106°C] shaft with
AE has a negligible coefficient of thermal expansion. The coeffi- an outside diameter of DS  300 mm. If the temperatures of the
cients of thermal expansion are 11.9 106°C for the steel and sleeve and the shaft remain the same, determine the temperature at
22.5 106°C for the aluminum alloy. which the sleeve will slip over the shaft with a gap of 0.05 mm.

A P2.24 For the assembly shown in Figure P2.24, bars (1) and
(2) each have cross-sectional areas of A  1.6 in.2, elastic moduli
of E  15.2 106 psi, and coefficients of thermal expansion of
  12.2 106°F. If the temperature of the assembly is in-
creased by 80°F from its initial temperature, determine the result-
250 mm ing displacement of pin B. Assume h  54 in. and   55°.

B Steel C
25 mm A U U C

D Aluminum E (1) (2)

300 mm h

FIGURE P2.22

P2.23 At a temperature of 25°C, a cold-rolled red brass B

[B  17.6 106°C] sleeve has an inside diameter of FIGURE P2.24

46