Basics of Computer Networking

Computer networking is a cornerstone of modern technology, enabling the interconnected systems that power the
Internet, business communications, and everyday digital interactions. Understanding the fundamentals of computer
networking is essential for anyone involved in technology, from enthusiasts to professionals. This article will explore the
basics of computer networking, including network types, components, protocols, and essential services like the Domain
Name System (DNS).

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share resources and information. These devices can
include computers, servers, printers, and other hardware. Networks allow for the efficient exchange of data, enabling
various applications such as email, file sharing, and internet browsing.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node can be illustrated as Equipment for
Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like connecting two computers or
more. Link in Computer Networks can be defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.

The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or protocols which help in sending and receiving data
via the links which allow Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP Address, that helps in identifying a
device.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

 Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to enable
communication and data exchange.

 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include computers, Servers,
Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.

 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is transmitted over a network. Examples
of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.

 Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes on a network. The common
network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.

 Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to take Network Capacity and Functionality
on lease from the Provider. Service Provider Networks include Wireless Communications, Data Carriers, etc.

 IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every device on a network. IP
addresses are used to identify devices and enable communication between them.

 DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate human-readable domain names (such
as www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand.

 Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic.
Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access and other security threats.

Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

 LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small area, such as an office or a home. LANs are
typically used to connect computers and other devices within a building or a campus.
 WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large geographic area, such as a city, country, or
even the entire world. WANs are used to connect LANs together and are typically used for long-distance
communication.
 Cloud Networks: Cloud Networks can be visualized with a Wide Area Network (WAN) as they can be hosted on
public or private cloud service providers and cloud networks are available if there is a demand. Cloud Networks
consist of Virtual Routers, Firewalls, etc.

These are just a few basic concepts of computer networking. Networking is a vast and complex field, and there are many
more concepts and technologies involved in building and maintaining networks. Now we are going to discuss some more
concepts on Computer Networking.

 Open system: A system that is connected to the network and is ready for communication.
  Closed system: A system that is not connected to the network and can’t be communicated with.

Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:

 Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a type of Computer Network Architecture in which

Nodes can be Servers or Clients. Here, the server node can manage the Client Node Behaviour.
 Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Architecture, there is not any concept of a Central Server. Each
device is free for working as either client or server.

Network Devices
An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts, that are connected using multiple paths for the purpose of
sending/receiving data or media. Computer networks can also include multiple devices/mediums which help in the
communication between two different devices; these are known as Network devices and include things such as routers,
switches, hubs, and bridges.

Network Devices

Network Topology
The Network Topology is the layout arrangement of the different devices in a network. Common examples include Bus,
Star, Mesh, Ring, and Daisy chain.

Network Topology

OSI Model
OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that specifies standards for communications
protocols and also the functionalities of each layer. The OSI has been developed by the International Organization For
Standardization and it is 7 layer architecture. Each layer of OSI has different functions and each layer has to follow
different protocols. The 7 layers are as follows:

Network Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two entities can communicate across the network and
there exists a different protocol defined at each layer of the OSI model. A few such protocols are TCP, IP, UDP, ARP,
DHCP, FTP, and so on.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Function: The foundational protocol suite of the internet, enabling reliable communication.
Components:

TCP: Ensures data is delivered reliably and in order.

IP: Routes data packets to their destination based on IP addresses.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and HTTPS

Function: The protocols used for transmitting web pages.

HTTP: Unsecured communication.

HTTPS: Secured communication using SSL/TLS encryption.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Function: Protocol for sending email.

Components: Works with other protocols like POP3 and IMAP for email retrieval.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Function: Protocol for transferring files between computers.

Components: Includes commands for uploading, downloading, and managing files on a remote server.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Function: Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network.

Components: Reduces manual configuration and IP address conflicts.

Domain Name System (DNS)

Function: Translates human-friendly domain names into IP addresses.

Components: Ensures seamless navigation on the internet.

Unique Identifiers of Network

Hostname: Each device in the network is associated with a unique device name known as Hostname. Type “hostname” in
the command prompt(Administrator Mode) and press ‘Enter’, this displays the hostname of your machine.

HostName

IP Address (Internet Protocol address): Also known as the Logical Address, the IP Address is the network address of the
system across the network. To identify each device in the world-wide-web, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) assigns an IPV4 (Version 4) address as a unique identifier to each device on the Internet. The length of an IPv4
address is 32 bits, hence, we have 232 IP addresses available. The length of an IPv6 address is 128 bits.

In Windows Type “ipconfig” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the IP address of the
device. For Linux, Type “ifconfig” in the terminal and press ‘Enter’ this gives us the IP address of the device.
MAC Address (Media Access Control address): Also known as physical address, the MAC Address is the unique identifier
of each host and is associated with its NIC (Network Interface Card). A MAC address is assigned to the NIC at the time of
manufacturing. The length of the MAC address is: 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits Type “ipconfig/all” in the command prompt
and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the MAC address.

Port: A port can be referred to as a logical channel through which data can be sent/received to an application. Any host
may have multiple applications running, and each of these applications is identified using the port number on which they
are running.

A port number is a 16-bit integer, hence, we have 216 ports available which are categorized as shown below:

Port Types Range

Well known Ports 0 – 1023
Registered Ports 1024 – 49151
Ephemeral Ports 49152 – 65535
Number of ports: 65,536
Range: 0 – 65535
Type “netstat -a” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this lists all the ports being used.

List of Ports

Socket: The unique combination of IP address and Port number together is termed a Socket.

Other Related Concepts

DNS Server: DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS is basically a server that translates web addresses or URLs (ex:
www.google.com) into their corresponding IP addresses. We don’t have to remember all the IP addresses of each and
every website. The command ‘nslookup’ gives you the IP address of the domain you are looking for. This also provides
information on our DNS Server. \

Domain IP Address

ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to convert an IP address to its corresponding physical
address(i.e., MAC Address). ARP is used by the Data Link Layer to identify the MAC address of the Receiver’s machine.

RARP: RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. As the name suggests, it provides the IP address of the
device given a physical address as input. But RARP has become obsolete since the time DHCP has come into the picture.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a critical component of computer networking. It converts easily recognizable domain
names, such as www.example.com, into numerical IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the
network.

How DNS Works?

User Input: When a user enters a domain name in a browser, the system needs to find its IP address.

DNS Query: The user’s device sends a DNS query to the DNS resolver.

Resolver Request: The DNS resolver checks its cache for the IP address. If not found, it forwards the request to the root
DNS server.

Root DNS Server: The root DNS server provides the address of the TLD (Top-Level Domain) server for the specific domain
extension (e.g., .com).

TLD DNS Server: The TLD server directs the resolver to the authoritative DNS server for the actual domain.

Authoritative DNS Server: The authoritative DNS server knows the IP address for the domain and provides it to the
resolver.

Response to User: The resolver stores the IP address in its cache and sends it to the user’s device.

Access Website: With the IP address, the user’s device can access the desired website.

DNS works efficiently, translating user-friendly domain names into IP addresses, allowing seamless navigation on the
internet.

Network Security

Ensuring the security of a network is crucial to protect data and resources from unauthorized access and attacks. Key
aspects of network security include:

Firewalls: Devices or software that monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on security rules.

Encryption: The process of encoding data to prevent unauthorized access. Commonly used in VPNs, HTTPS, and secure
email.

Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Tools that monitor network traffic for suspicious activity and potential threats.

Access Control: Mechanisms that restrict access to network resources based on user identity and role.

Regular Updates and Patching: Keeping software and hardware up to date to protect against vulnerabilities.

Conclusion
Understanding the basics of computer networking is essential in today’s interconnected world. Networks enable the
seamless exchange of information, support countless applications, and underpin the functionality of the internet. From
different types of networks and their components to protocols and security measures, a solid grasp of these concepts is
foundational for anyone working in or with technology. As technology evolves, so too will the complexity and capabilities
of computer networks, making continuous learning and adaptation crucial.

Basics of Computer Networking – FAQs

What is an IP address?
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier assigned to each device on a network. It allows devices to locate
and communicate with each other. There are two types of IP addresses: IPv4 (e.g., 192.168.1.1) and IPv6 (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

What is a firewall?
A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external
networks like the internet.

What is the difference between TCP and UDP?

  TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): A connection-oriented protocol that ensures reliable and ordered delivery of
data. It is used for applications where data integrity is critical, like web browsing and email.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): A connectionless protocol that does not guarantee delivery or order. It is used for
applications where speed is more important than reliability, like streaming and gaming.

What is a firewall?
A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic
based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external
networks like the internet.

What is DNS?
DNS (Domain Name System) is a system that translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP
addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network.

What is a subnet mask?

A subnet mask is used in IP addressing to divide the network into sub-networks, or subnets. It helps determine which
portion of an IP address is the network address and which part is the host address.

What is NAT (Network Address Translation)?

NAT is a method used by routers to translate private IP addresses within a local network to a public IP address before
sending data over the internet. This helps to conserve IP addresses and add a layer of security by hiding internal network
addresses.

What is a MAC address?

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to a network interface card (NIC) for communication
on a physical network segment. It is a hardware address that is unique to each network device.

What is bandwidth?
Bandwidth refers to the maximum rate of data transfer across a network or internet connection in a given amount of
time. It is usually measured in bits per second (bps).

What is latency in networking?

Latency is the time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination across a network. It is usually measured in
milliseconds (ms) and can affect the performance of networked applications.

What is VPN (Virtual Private Network)?

A VPN is a secure connection that allows users to access a private network over the public internet. It encrypts the data
traffic and helps maintain privacy and security.

What is a proxy server?

A proxy server acts as an intermediary between a user’s device and the internet. It can be used for purposes such as
improving security, filtering content, or bypassing geographical restrictions.

What is OSI Model? – Layers of OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection, where open stands to say non-proprietary. It is a 7-layer architecture with
each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe. The OSI reference model was developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization‘, in the year 1984.

The OSI model provides a theoretical foundation for understanding network communication. However, it is usually not
directly implemented in its entirety in real-world networking hardware or software. Instead, specific
protocols and technologies are often designed based on the principles outlined in the OSI model to facilitate efficient
data transmission and networking operations

What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains the process of transmitting data between
computers. It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing for a
more systematic approach to networking.
OSI Model

Data Flow In OSI Model

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First data travels
down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.

Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.

 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.

 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.

 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.

 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.

 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.

Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination correctly, and these steps are reversed
upon arrival.
Let’s look at it with an Example:

Luffy sends an e-mail to his friend Zoro.

Step 1: Luffy interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his email to send. (This happens in Layer 7:
Application layer)

Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission. (This
happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer)

Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the internet. (This happens in Layer 5:
Session Layer)

Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and error-checking information to maintain
the reliability of the information. (This happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer)

Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer. (This happens in Layer 3: Network
Layer)

Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added for local devices and then it checks for
error using error detection. (This happens in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)

Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals over a physical network medium like
ethernet cable or WiFi.

After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Zoro, the process will reverse and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email
will be shown on Zoro’s email client.

What Are The 7 Layers of The OSI Model?

The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down order:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Physical Layer – Layer 1

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into
0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock
controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.

 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.

 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus,
star, or mesh topology.

 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected devices. The
various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

Note:

 Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.

 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main function of this layer is to make
sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it
is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of the
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking
“Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that
are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and
end of the frame.

 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the
sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.

 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and retransmits
damaged or lost frames.

 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow control
coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
  Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the
data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Note:

 Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.

 Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.

 Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

Network Layer – Layer 3

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different networks. It also
takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes
available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination. This function
of the network layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Note:

 Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the network layer. The data in the
transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The
transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an
error is found.

At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and
also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port
numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.

Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.

Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when a web application
requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web applications.
Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has
received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and breaks the message
into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.

 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer header includes a
type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer
makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service

 Connectionless Service

1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes:

 Connection Establishment

 Data Transfer

 Termination/disconnection

In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of
packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.

2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver
does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication between devices.
Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.

Note:

 Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.

 Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with the Application
Layer by making system calls.

 The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.

 Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Session Layer – Layer 5

This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also
ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and
terminate a connection.

 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered synchronization points in the
data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and
ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each other in half-duplex or
full-duplex.

Note:
  All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in the TCP/IP model as the
“Application Layer”.

 Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known as Upper Layers
or Software Layers.

 Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.

Example

Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger application running in their
browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data.
This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s
and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well
as decrypting data.

 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Note: Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF.

Application Layer – Layer 7

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer which is implemented by the
network applications. These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a
window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

Device or Protocol Use : SMTP.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user to

access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

  Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

Note: The OSI model acts as a reference model and is not implemented on the Internet because of its late invention. The
current model being used is the TCP/IP model.

OSI Model – Layer Architecture

Layer Layer Name Responsibility Information Form Device or Protocol

No (Data Unit)
7 Application Layer Helps in identifying the client and Message SMTP
synchronizing communication.
6 Presentation Data from the application layer is Message JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Layer extracted and manipulated in the
required format for transmission.
5 Session Layer Establishes Connection, Maintenance, Message (or Gateway
Ensures Authentication and Ensures encrypted message)
security.
4 Transport Layer Take Service from Network Layer and Segment Firewall
provide it to the Application Layer.
3 Network Layer Transmission of data from one host to Packet Router
another, located in different networks.
2 Data Link Layer Node to Node Delivery of Message. Frame Switch, Bridge
1 Physical Layer Establishing Physical Connections Bits Hub, Repeater, Modem,
between Devices. Cables
OSI vs TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP protocol ( Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol ) was created by U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in 1970s.

Some key differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP Model are:

 TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers but OSI model has 7 layers. Layers 5,6,7 of the OSI model are combined into
the Application Layer of TCP/IP model and OSI layers 1 and 2 are combined into Network Access Layers of
TCP/IP protocol.

 The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model, hence it is a foundational protocol that defines how should data
be transferred online.

 Compared to the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has less strict layer boundaries.

 All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data transmission but in the OSI model, some applications can skip
certain layers. Only layers 1,2 and 3 of the OSI model are necessary for data transmission.

OSI vs TCP/IP
Why Does The OSI Model Matter?
Even though the modern Internet doesn’t strictly use the OSI Model (it uses a simpler Internet protocol suite), the OSI
Model is still very helpful for solving network problems. Whether it’s one person having trouble getting their laptop
online, or a website being down for thousands of users, the OSI Model helps to identify the problem. If you can narrow
down the issue to one specific layer of the model, you can avoid a lot of unnecessary work.

Imperva Application Security

Imperva security solutions protect your applications at different levels of the OSI model. They use DDoS mitigation to
secure the network layer and provide web application firewall (WAF), bot management, and API security to protect the
application layer.

To secure applications and networks across the OSI stack, Imperva offers multi-layered protection to ensure websites and
applications are always available, accessible, and safe. The Imperva application security solution includes:

 DDoS Mitigation: Protects the network layer from Distributed Denial of Service attacks.

 Web Application Firewall (WAF): Shields the application layer from threats.

 Bot Management: Prevents malicious bots from affecting the application.

 API Security: Secures APIs from various vulnerabilities and attacks.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers. Its advantages include:

 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and troubleshoot.

 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and protocols.

 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.

 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

 Complexity: The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for beginners.

 Not Practical: In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol suite
(TCP/IP), so the OSI Model isn’t always directly applicable.

 Slow Adoption: When it was introduced, the OSI Model was not quickly adopted by the industry, which preferred
the simpler and already-established TCP/IP model.

 Overhead: Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make the process
more time-consuming and less efficient.

 Theoretical: The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for understanding concepts
but not always practical for implementation.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that standardizes the functions
of a telecommunication or computing system into seven distinct layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application. Each layer has specific responsibilities and interacts with the layers directly above and
below it, ensuring seamless communication and data exchange across diverse network environments. Understanding the
OSI model helps in troubleshooting network issues, designing robust network architectures, and facilitating
interoperability between different networking products and technologies.

Protocol and Standard in Computer Networks

Protocols and standards are important in computer networks. They are like the rules and guidelines that allow different
devices and systems to communicate and work together smoothly. Protocols define how data is sent, received, and
processed, while standards ensure that various technologies are compatible with each other. This coordination is critical
for the Internet and other networks to function constantly and efficiently.
Network protocol ensures that different technologies and components of the network are compatible with one another,
reliable, and able to function together. In this article, we are going to discuss every point about protocols and standards
in computer networks.

What is Protocol?

A protocol is a set of rules that determines how data is sent and received over a network. The protocol is just like a
language that computers use to talk to each other, ensuring they understand and can respond to each other’s messages
correctly. Protocols help make sure that data moves smoothly and securely between devices on a network.

To make communication successful between devices, some rules and procedures should be agreed upon at the sending
and receiving ends of the system. Such rules and procedures are called Protocols. Different types of protocols are used
for different types of communication.

Protocols

In the above diagrams, Protocols are shown as a set of rules. Communication between the Sender and Receiver is not
possible without Protocol.

Key Elements of Protocol

 Syntax: Syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that gets exchanged between the devices. Syntax
of the message includes the type of data, composition of the message, and sequencing of the message. The
starting 8 bits of data are considered as the address of the sender. The next 8 bits are considered to be the
address of the receiver. The remaining bits are considered as the message itself.

 Semantics: Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It provides rules and norms for understanding
message or data element values and actions.

 Timing: Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination between devices while transferring the data.
Timing ensures at what time data should be sent and how fast data can be sent. For example, If a sender sends
100 Mbps but the receiver can only handle 1 Mbps, the receiver will overflow and lose data. Timing ensures
preventing of data loss, collisions, and other timing-related issues.

 Sequence Control: Sequence control ensures the proper ordering of data packets. The main responsibility of
sequence control is to acknowledge the data while it get received, and the retransmission of lost data. Through
this mechanism, the data is delivered in correct order.

 Flow Control: Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits the sender’s data or asks the receiver if it’s
ready for more. Flow control prevents data congestion and loss.

 Error Control: Error control mechanisms detect and fix data transmission faults. They include error detection
codes, data resend, and error recovery. Error control detects and corrects noise, interference, and other
problems to maintain data integrity.

 Security : Network security protects data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity. which includes encryption,
authentication, access control, and other security procedures. Network communication’s privacy and
trustworthiness are protected by security standards.

Types of Protocol
  Network Layer Protocols : Network layer protocols operate in the network layer which is also known as the Layer
3 of the network architecture. Network layer protocols are responsible for packet routing, forwarding, and
addressing of data packets throughout the network. IP and ICMP are the network layer protocols.

 Transport Layer Protocols: Transport layer protocols work in the transport layer which provides end-to-end
service ensuring data transfer across apps on different devices. TCP and UDP are the most popular transport layer
protocols.

 Application Layer Protocol: Application layer protocol working in the application layer of the network
architecture provides communication between applications running on different devices. The application layer
protocols enable cross-device communication. They format, exchange, and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP,
and SMTP are examples.

 Wireless Protocols: Wireless protocols basically used in wireless communication which enables data transfer
through wireless networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE protocols are examples.

 Routing Protocols: Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal network pathways throughout the network for
fastest data transmission. Routers share information to develop and maintain routing tables. RIP, OSPF,
and BGP are examples.

 Security Protocols : security protocol protects data confidentiality, integrity, and authenticity while transmission
of data over the network. They include SSL and TLS, encryption methods, and authentication protocols for
providing data security.

 Internet Protocols : IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet protocol provides data communication through
routing and forwarding data packets from one device to another by unique addressing scheme.

Important Protocols Used in Computer Network

Here are some key protocols that are widely used in computer networks:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures data is sent and received accurately by breaking it into packets,
sending them, and reassembling them at the destination.

 IP (Internet Protocol): Addresses and routes the packets to make sure they reach the right destination.

 HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol/Secure): HTTP used for transferring web pages on the internet. When
you browse a website, your browser uses HTTP to request and display web pages. And HTTPs is a secure version
of HTTP that encrypts data to protect it from being intercepted.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between computers on a network. It allows users to
upload and download files.SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending emails. It transfers emails
from a client to a server or between servers.

 DNS (Domain Name System): It is used to translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com)
into IP addresses that computers use to identify each other on the network.

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network,
ensuring each device has a unique address.

 SSH (Secure Shell): Provides a secure way to access and manage devices over a network. It encrypts the data,
making it safe from eavesdropping.

 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): Used for managing and monitoring network devices like routers,
switches, and servers. It collects and organizes information about these devices

How are Protocols Used in Cyber Attacks?

Attackers can misuse the rules of how data is sent over the internet to cause problems for systems. One common way
they do this is through distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks.

For example, in a SYN flood attack, attackers exploit the TCP protocol. Normally, a device sends a SYN packet to a server
to start a connection, and the server responds, expecting a final response to complete the connection. Attackers send
many SYN packets but never complete the connections. This overloads the server, preventing it from working properly for
real users.

Cloudflare offers solutions to stop these kinds of attacks. One of their services, Cloudflare Magic Transit, protects against
attacks targeting different levels of the network system. In the case of a SYN flood attack, Cloudflare manages the TCP
connections for the server, so the server doesn’t get overwhelmed and can continue to serve real users.

What is Standards?

Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for the exchange of information among devices. It
is important to follow Standards which are created by various Standard Organizations like IEEE, ISO, ANSI, etc.

Types of Standards

 De Facto Standard: The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or “By Convention”.These are the
standards that have not been approved by any Organization but have been adopted as Standards because of
their widespread use. Also, sometimes these standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies that established their own rules for their products which
are different. Also, they use some same standard rules for manufacturing their products.

 De Jure Standard: The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By Regulations”.Thus, these are the
standards that have been approved by officially recognized bodies like ANSI, ISO, IEEE, etc. These are the
standards that are important to follow if it is required or needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP, TCP, IP, UDP etc. are important to
follow the same when we need them.

Protocol and Standard Compliance in Network Security

 Interoperability: Protocols and standards allow devices and systems to communicate. These protocols ensure
network components can function together, avoiding risks and security gaps produced by incompatible or
unsupported systems.

 Security Baseline : Protocols and standards contain security principles and best practices that help secure
network infrastructure. These protocols allow organizations to protect sensitive data
via encryption, authentication, and access controls.

 Vulnerability Management : Network security protocols and standards help organizations find and fix
vulnerabilities. Many standards requires regular security assessments, vulnerability scanning, and penetration
testing to discover network infrastructure flaws. Organizations can prevent cyberattacks and address
vulnerabilities by following these compliance criteria.

Best Practices for Ensuring Protocol and Standard Compliance

 Use cryptography tools to secure personal data transported across your network, making sure that data
encryption methods exceed industry requirements.

 Perform frequent security checks on all network devices to discover vulnerabilities and verify they fulfil
compliance standards.

 Restrict user access to specified network zones to ensure secure data sharing and prevent unauthorized access.

Conclusion

Protocols and standards enable secure and efficient computer network communication. They regulate data exchange,
formatting, endpoints, and reliable device communication. These protocols and standards ensure network security and
performance. Compliance can prevent data breaches and system breakdowns