INTRODUCTION

Electric circuit theorems are always beneficial to help find voltage and currents in multi-loop
circuits. These theorems use fundamental rules or formulas and basic equations of mathematics to
analyze basic components of electrical or electronics parameters such as voltages, currents,
resistance, and so on. These fundamental theorems include the basic theorems like Superposition
theorem, Thevenin’s, Norton’s theorem, and Millman’s Theorem, and Maximum power transfer
theorem, and others. This is in addition to the basic solution offered by Kirchhoff’s Laws
complemented by Loop and Nodal Analysis.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of the semester, the students should be able to:
1. Analyze and solve the different circuit parameters using Loop and Nodal analysis.
2. Obtain the different circuit parameters like voltage and current using circuit laws and
theorems.
3. Apply the different circuit laws and theorems in an engineering situation.

COURSE CONTENT
This course is composed of four modules and 27 lessons. It is structured as follows:

Module I – Basic Definitions

Lesson 1 – Charge and Current

Lesson 2 – Electric Potential
Lesson 3 – Voltage, Energy and Power
Lesson 4 – Passive and Active Elements

Module II – Resistance

Lesson 1 – Laws of Resistance

Lesson 2 – Conductance and Conductivity
Lesson 3 – Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
Lesson 4– Variation of Resistivity with Temperature

Module III – Basic Law in Circuits/ Network, Laws and Theorems

Lesson 1 – Ohm’s Law

Lesson 2 – Series Resistance and Voltage Division
Lesson 3 – Parallel Resistance and Current Division

1
 Lesson 4 – Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeter
Lesson 5 - Kirchhoff’s Laws
Lesson 6 – Maxwell’s Loop Current
Lesson 7– Nodal Analysis
Lesson 8 – Superposition Theorem

Module IV- Basic Law in Circuits

Lesson 1 – Millman’s Theorem

Lesson 2– Reciprocity Theorem
Lesson 3 – Source Conversion Method
Lesson 4 – Delta-Wye Conversion
Lesson 5 – Thevenin’s Theorem
Lesson 6 – Norton’s Theorem
Lesson 7 Series Resistance –Inductance Circuit
Lesson 8 Source- Free Resistance –Capacitance Combination

Module I – Basic Definitions

Electric Circuit Analysis – is the thorough study of the methods and techniques
solving the different circuit parameters such as voltage and current if the input
voltage and circuit constants are given.

Electric Circuit Analysis, is the first course taken in the major area by an
electrical engineering student. Virtually, all branches of electrical engineering, such
as electronics, power systems, communications, machinery and control theory are
based on circuit theory. Thus, it is no exaggeration to say that the basic circuit theory
course a student first encounters in electrical engineering is the most important
course in his or her curriculum.

DEFINITIONS:

An electric circuit or electric networks is a collection of electrical

interconnected in some specified way. A typical example of an electrical element is a
two terminal device shown in the figure below:

a
b

Included as an example of an electrical elements are resistors, inductors,

capacitors, batteries and generators. More complicated circuit elements have more
than two terminals. Transistors and operational amplifiers are common examples. Als o
a number of electrical elements may be combined by interconnecting their terminals
to form a single package having any number of accessible terminals.

2
 Some authors distinguish a circuit from a network by requiring a circuit to
contain at least one closed path.

Lesson 1 - Charge & Current

A body is said to be electrically charge if the number of charged particles are

not the same. We explain the existence of forces of both attraction and expulsion by

postulating that there are two kinds of charges, positive and negative and that unlike
charges attract and like charges repel.

According to modern theory, matter is made up of atoms, which are com posed
of a number of fundamental particles. The most important of these particles are
protons (positive charges) and neutrons (neutral, no charge) found in the nucleus of
the atom and electrons (negative charges) moving in orbit about the nucleus.
Normally, the atom is neutral, the negative charge of the electrons balancing the
positive charge of the protons. Particles may be come positively charge by losing
electrons to other particles and become negatively charge by gaining electrons from
other particles.

The symbol for charge will be taken as Q or q, the capital letter usually
denoting constant charges and the lowercase letter indicating a time varying charge.
In the latter case, we may emphasize the time dependency by writing q(t).

The primary purpose of an electric circuit is to move or transfer charges along

specified paths. This motion of charges constitutes an electric current, denoted by
letters I or I, formally, current is the time rate of change charge, given by

dq
i  ,A I  Q,A
dt or
t

3
The basic unit of current is the ampere

1A = 1 c/sec and note that 1C = 6.24 x 10 18 electrons.

In circuit theory current is generally thought of as the movement of positive

charges, that is electricity travels from positive to negative. We know that in metal
conductors, the current is the movement of electrons that have been pulled loose
from the orbits of the atoms of the metals. Thus, we should distinguish conventional-
current (the movement of positive charges), which is used in electric network and
electron current. Unless otherwise stated, our concern will be with conventional
current. As an example,

3A - 3A

There are several types of current in common use:

1. Direct Current, dc
1.1 Continuous dc
1.2 Pulsating dc
1.3 Uni-directional dc

2. Altenating Current,
ac 2.1 Oscillating ac
2.2 Sinusoidal Current
2.3 Sawtooth Current

Lesson 2 - The Idea of an Electric Potential

Two bodies that are electrically neutral tends to become positively charge and
negatively charge bodies once electrons and protons are acquired or loss by these
bodies. Thus, giving rise to the term positive terminal as the body which has the
protons and

negative terminal as the which has the electrons. Usually, bodies which has this is
identified by the plus (positive) and minus (negative) signs. An illustration is shown
below:

4
 + -
V
Lesson 3 - Voltage, Energy and Power
We shall define the “voltage across an element as the work done in moving a
unit charge (+ 1C) through the element from one terminal to the other. The unit of the
voltage or potential difference is volt. Since the voltage is the number of joules of
work performed on 1 Coulomb, we may say that

1V=1J/C

Therefore,

dw V W
v  or
dq Q

We shall represent a voltage by v or V and use the +, - polarity convention as

shown in the figure below:

a b
+ -
v
Some authors prefer to describe the voltage across an element in terms of
voltage drops and rises. A voltage drop of v volts occurs in moving from B to A.

If a positive current enters the positive terminal, then an external force must
be driving the current and is thus supplying or delivering energy to the element. The
element

5
is absorbing the energy in this case. If on the other hand, a positive current leaves the
positive terminal, then the element is delivering energy to the external unit.

The element absorbs energy according to the equation ,

dW  vdq
W  v dq
But q  it
dq  idt

W  v idt
W  vit 
ci 0

let’s say that at t = 0 or initially energy expanded is zero, until t = t, whose

energy expanded is w:

W  vit or W  vit, j

Also, since by definition, the rate at which energy is expanded is power,

dW  vdq and dq  idt

dWvidt
dw
 vi  p
dt
P VI, watts
p  vi or

The quantities v and I are generally functions of time. Therefore, P is a time

varying quantity because its value is the power at the instant of time at which v and I
are measured.

Lesson 4 - Passive and Active Elements

A circuit element is said to passive if the total energy delivered to it from the
rest of the circuit is always positive.

An active element is said to be not passive, since the delivered energy is non-
negative for all time.

6
Independent and Dependent Sources

An independent voltage source is a two terminals element, such as battery or a

generator, that maintains a specified voltage between its terminals. The sym bol used
is as shown below:

a a

+
+
v v
-
-
b b

An independent current source is a 2 terminal through which a specified

current flows. The current is completely independent of the voltage across the
element. The symbol used is shown below:
a

A dependent or controlled voltage source is one whose terminal voltage

depends on, or is controlled by, a voltage or a current existing at some other place in
the circuit. A typical example is as shown below:

7
 v2+ 2 = v + + v = 2i, v
1 - -

VCVS CCVS

i = 2v, A

i = 2i, A

VCCS CCCS
A dependent or controlled current source, is one whose current is dependent on a
voltage or a current existing elsewhere in the circuit. A typical example is as shown
below:

These sources are considered ideal elements. They are mathematical models
that approximate the actual physical elements under certain conditions.

Module 2-Resistance
It may be defined as the property of substance due to which it opposes (or
restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e electrons) through it.

Metals. Acids, and salt solutions are good conductors of electricity. Among
them are silver, copper and aluminum are very good conductors in the given order.

Those substances which offer relatively greater difficulty or hindrance to the

passage of these electrons are said to be relatively poor conductors of electricity like
Bakelite, mica, glass, rubber, PVC and dry wood. Among the good insulators can be
included fibrous substances such as paper and cotton when dry, mineral oils free from
acids and water, ceramics like hard porcelain and asbestos.

8
 In between the characteristic of good conductors and insulators are the semi-
conductors. These are the substances that will act like a conductor and an insulator
under certain conditions. An example of these are diodes, transistors, trials, FET’s and
BJT’s.

The practical unit of resistance is the ohm, whose symbol is the Greek letter
omega Ω. A conductor is said to have resistance of one ohm if it perm its one am pere
of current to flow through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals.

Lesson 1 - LAWS OF RESISTANCE

The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors:

a. it varies directly as its length, l

b. it varies inversely as the cross section A of the conductor
c. it depends on the nature of material
d. it also depends on the temperature of the conductor

neglecting the last factor for the time being, we can say that,

l RP
l
Ra a or A

9
Where p is a constant of proportionality depending on the nature of the material of
the conductor and is known as specific resistance or resistivity.

Resistivity can be expressed in several units. The most popular is the English
unit, where in the length in terms of foot, the cross sectional area is in terms of
circular mil.

To find the area in circular mil,

Circular Mil = (d, mil) 2

Where 1 mil = 0.000 inch or 1 inch = 1000 mils

4
A convenient conversion factor from square inch to circular mil, is 1 sq. inch = 

x106 cir – mils.

Lesson 2 - CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY

Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance. Whereas resistance of a

conductor measures the opposition which it offers to the flow of current the
conductance measures the inducement which it offers to its flow.

From the equation

l
R  p
A
1  1A 1 1
  p 
but G 
R pl R

Where a is called the conductivity or specific conductance of a conductor. The unit of

conductance is Siemens (S). earlier, this unit was called mho.

10
Lesson 3 - TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
Let a metallic having a resistance of R at a temperature of t1 °C be heated to
t2 °C and let its resistance be R2. Then considering normal ranges of tem perature, it
is found that the increased in resistance R R 2 - R 1 depends

i) directly on its initial resistance, R1

t

ii) directly on the rise in temperature, ∆t = t2 -t1 1

iii) on the nature of the material of the conductor

RR1 t
R  1 tR1

R2 -R1 = R1  1  t2  t1 
R2  R11 1  t2  t1 
Where α1 is (alpha) is a constant and is known as the temperature coefficient of
resistance of the conductor. The temperature coefficient of resistance may be defined
as the increase in resistance per ohm original resistance per °C rise in temperature.

Suppose a conductor of resistance R0 at 0°C (point A) is heated to t°C (point

B). Its resistance Rt after heating is given by

Rt  R0 1 0 t 

cooling heating
Ro,0rC

B
Now suppose that we have a of resistance Rt at temperature t°C to
conductor Obviously, now the initial point is 0°C. final point is A. the final resistance
B and the Given by: Ro is

11
 Rt  Ro 1 0 t)

From the above equation

 R  R
t o
t
Rt
t

Substituting Rt

 R  1 t  R  
R 1 t t
o o o o

t
1 t
o o o

In general let t1 = temp. coefficient of resistance, therefore,

 o
1 t
o 1

In similar manner

1 1 o t1
or   
1 o

1 1
 o

t
2 2 o

Subtracting the 2 terms,

1  1  1 o t 2  1 o t 1  t  t
 2  1  o o21 

1  1  t  t 
 2  121 

Finally,

 1
2 1 t  t
 2 1
1

For a single temperature function only,

12
  o  1
1 1 t 1 t
o 1
o 1

 1
1 1 t
o 1

T  1
Where  o is the inferred absolute temperature

Lesson 4 - VARIATIONS OF RESISTIVITY WITH TEMPERATURE

Not only resistance but specific resistance or resistivity of a metallic
conductors also increases with rise in temperature and vice versa. Let, for any
metallic conductor

= resistivity at t1 at °C
1 = resistivity at t2 at °C
2
m = slope of the linear part of the curve

then it is seen that,

P
P1

P
2

t
t 1
t 2

2
1
m  or
t 2 t

13
 1

2  1  mt 2  t 1 

finally
 m 
2  1 1  t2  t1  
 1 
m
the ratio of 1 is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity at temperature t1
at 0°C. it may be defined numerically equal to the fractional change in ρ1 per °C change

in the temperature from t1°C. It is almost equal to the temperature coefficient of

m
resistance. Hence, putting 1   , we get
1

  1t  t 

2 1 1 2 1

14
 Module III – Basic Law in Circuits
Lesson 1 - OHM’s LAW
This law applies to electric conductions through good conductors and may be stated
as follows:

“The ratio of potential difference between any two points on a conductor to

the current (I) flowing between them, is constant, provided the temperature of the
conductor does not change.”

In other words,

V/I = constant or V/I = R

Where R is the resistance of the conductor between two points considered.

It simply means that provided R is kept constant, current is directly

proportional to the potential difference across the ends of a conductor. However, this
linear relationship between V and I is not applied to all non-metallic conductors. It
also does not apply to non-linear devices such as Zener diodes and voltage regulator
tubes.

As a final note, the concept of resistance may be used to define 2 very common
circuit theory terms, short and open circuit. A short circuit is an ideal conductor
between two points and thus may be thought of as a resistance of zero ohms. It can
carry any current, depending on the rest of the circuit, but the voltage across it is
zero. Analogously, an open circuit can flow. Thus, it may be considered to be an
infinite resistance and it may have any voltage, again depending on the rest of the
circuit. The figure below illustrates how the three variables are related.

15
 I
R

+ V -

Lesson 2 - SERIES RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE DIVISION

Elements are said to be connected in series when they all carry the same
current. When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end
on end, they are said to be connected in series. Being a series circuit, it should be
remembered that i) current is the same throughout the circuit ii) but the voltage drop
across each is different due to its different resistances and is given by Ohm’s Law and
iii) sum of the voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the three resistors.

It V 1 R 1

V 2 R 2

E V 3 R 3

V R 2 n

E  V1 V2 V3  ......Vn

E  IR1  IR2 IR3 ......IRn

But

E  IRt

IRt  IR1 IR2  IR3 .....IRn

R1  R1  R2  R3  ......Rn

16
Where R is the equivalent resistance in series
t
For 2 resistors in series:

I  E  V1 V 2
R R R
t 1 2

Thus,

V  E  E
1

R R RR
1 t 1 2

R
VE 1
1 R R
1 2
Also,
V  E  E
2

R R RR
2 2 1 2

R
V E 2
2 R R
1 2

The voltage divider rule formula is quite useful in determining the voltage
across the individual resistors without finding the current.

Lesson 3 - PARALLEL RESISTANCE AND CURRENT DIVISION

Elements are connected in parallel when the same voltage is common to each
of them, the current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm’s Law and the
total current is the sum of the separate branch currents. Thus,
I I 1
I 2
I 3

E R R R
1 2 3

I  I1  I2  I3  .....In
E
But, I 
Rt

17
 E E E E E
   ....
Rt R1 R2 R3Rn

For 2 resistors in parallel

E V1 V2

IRIR IR
1 1 2 2

Thus,

R1R2
I  IRt  I R1R2
1
R1 R1

 R 
I 1 I  2 
RR
 1 2 
Also,
R1 R 2
I  IRt  I R 1 R2
2
R R
2 2

R
 1 
I
I
2
R  R 
 1 2 
The 2 equations are helpful in the solution of branch currents without going
actually with the step by step procedure.

Lesson IV - AMMETERS, VOLTMETERS AND OHMMETERS

A good example of the usefulness of current and voltage division is in the
design of simple 2 – terminal measuring instruments, such as ammeters, voltmeters
and ohmmeters. An ideal ammeter measures the current flowing through its term inals
and has

18
a terminal current of zero. An ideal ohmmeter measures the resistance connected
between its terminals and delivers zero power to the resistance.

The instrument circuits are given below.

1. Ammeter Circuit

+ M
R M

I I FS
P

R P
-

2. Voltmeter Circuit
R
S
+
i M
v

R
M
-

3. Ohmmeter Circuit

RS
i M

RX
v
RM

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 NETWORKS LAWS AND THEOREMS
There are certain theorems which we applied to the solutions of electric
network either simplify the network itself or render their analytical solution very easy.
These theorems can also be applied to an a.c. circuit system, which the only
difference that vector impedance replaces the ohmic resistances of d.c. system.
Incidentally, a network is said to be solved or analyzed when all the voltages and all
currents in its different elements are determined.

There are two general approaches to a network analysis:

i) Direct Method

Here, the network is left in its original form while determining

its voltages and currents. Such methods are usually restricted to
fairly simple circuits and include the Kirchhoff’s Laws, Nodal
Analysis, Superposition theorem, and Reciprocity theorem etc.

ii) Network Reduction Method

Here, the original network are converted into a much simpler

equivalent circuit for rapid calculation of different quantities.
This method can be applied to simple as well as complicated
networks. Examples of this method are: Delta/Star and
Star/Delta conversions, Thevenin’s Theorem and Norton’s
Theorem etc.

Lesson 5 - Kirchhoff’s Law

These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm’s Law and are used for
solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved by the
latter. Kirchhoff’s laws, two in number, are particularly useful (a) in
determining the equivalent resistance of complicated networks of
conductors (b) for calculating the currents flowing in the various
conductors. The two laws are:

1.1 Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL)

He states as follows:

“ in any electrical network the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at

a point (or junction) is zero”

20
 It simply means that the total current leaving a junction is equal to the
total current entering that junction. It is obviously true because there is
no accumulation or depletion of current at any junction of the network.
For the example below, consider the incoming currents to be positive
and outgoing to be negative.

I I
2
1

I I
5 3

I
4

Thus, for node A

 I  I I I I  0

1 2 3 4 5

Or

I I I I I
1 2 2 3 5

1.2 Kirchhoff’s Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL)

It states as follows:

“the algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each

of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the
algebraic sum of the emf’s in that path is zero.

In other words, ΣIR + Σemf = 0

It should be noted that algebraic sum which takes into account the
polarities of the voltage drops. The basis of the law is this: if we start
from a particular junction and go around the mesh till we come back to
the starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which
started,

21
 hence, it means that all the sources of emf net on the way must
necessarily be equal to the voltage drops in the resistances, every
voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus.

1.3 Determination of Signs

The following sign convention is suggested:

1.3.1 Sign of Battery emf

it is important to note that the sign of the battery emf is

independent of the direction of the current through the branch.

E E
A- +B A+ -B

rise in voltage fall in voltage

+E -E
1.3.2 Sign of IR Drop

V V
I + - - +I
A R B A R
fall in voltage rise in voltage
-V = -IR +V = +IR
It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the
direction of current through the resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other
source of emf in in the circuit under consideration.

22
 Consider the figure below:

I R B
1 1

A I
4

R 4 I R 2
2
E 1
E 2

DI C
D 3
3

Consider the path ABCDA,

IR I R  I R  I REE0
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 2 1

Note, that in applying Kirchhoff’s laws, is that once a I direction

has been assumed, the same should be used throughout the solution
of the equation.

Lesson 6 - Maxwell’s Loop Current Method or Loop Analysis

This method which is particularly well suited to coupled circuits solutions
employs a system of loop or mesh currents (as in Kirchhoff’s laws). Here, current sin
different meshes are assigned continuous paths so that they do not split at a junction
into branch currents. This method eliminates a great deal of tedious work involved in
the branch current method. Basically, this method consists of writing loop voltage
equations by Kirchhoff’s voltage law in terms of unknown loop currents. As will be
seen later, the number f independent equations to be solved reduced from b (by
Kirchhoff’s laws) to b (j-1) for the loop current method where b is the number of
branches and j is the number of junctions in a given network.

Illustrative Example no. 1 (with voltage sources)

23
Determine the current supplied by each battery in the circuit shown :

5V
5 4 8
B4

3 2
30V
B
B1 20V 2 5V B3 5V B5
I1 I2 I3

Solution:

Since there are 3 meshes let the 3 loop currents be as shown:

For loop 1, 8I  3I 15

1 2

For loop 2, 3I  9I  2I 15

1 2 3

For loop 3, 2I2 10I3 165

Solving the 3 equations simultaneously

545
I 2 
299 A

1875
I 3  actual rotation should be CCW
598A

 765
I1 299A

Discharge current of 1  765

299A

24
 220
Charging current of   I  I 
2 1 2
299

2965
Discharge current of  3  I 2  I 3 
598A

Discharge current of  4  I2  545


299 A

Discharge current of 2  1875

598A

Lesson 7 – Nodal Analysis

The nodal analysis is based directly on Kirchhoff’s current law unlike loop
current method, which is based on Kirchhoff’s voltage law. However, like loop current
method, nodal method also has an advantage that a minimum number of equations
need be written to determine the unknown quantities. Moreover, it is particularly
suited for networks having many parallel circuits with common ground connection such
as electronic circuits.

For the application of this method every junction in the network where 3 or
more branches meet is regarded as the reference node or datum node or zero
potential node. Hence, the number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes
(n-1) where n is the number of independent nodes.

Illustrative example
12
1 V
1

b x
6
4
2
5A V2 Vn = 0
5A i
18 6

c y
d

25
Solution:
Using Nodal Analysis
KCL @ node 1: a+b = 5
V V V V
1 n  1 2  
5

12 6

0.25V1 - 0.167V2 5 eqn. 1

KCL @ node 2: c+I = b

V - V V - Vn V- V
2 3 2 1 2
18 4 6

- 0.167 V1  0.472V 2 - 0.056V3  0 eqn. 2

KCL @ node 3: 5 + d = c
c-d = 5

V - V - V - V 5
2 3 b n
18 6

0.056V 2 - 0.222V 3 5 eqn. 3

By Gaussian Elimination Method

0.25 5 
 0.167 0 5 0.25  0.167 0
  
 0.167 0.472  0.056 0

= 0

0.36  0.056 


0 0.056  0.222 5 0 0.056  0.222 

  
0.25 0.167 0 5  V3 = -21.003 Volts


0.36  0.056
0  3.34 V2 = 6.006 Volts
 0  0.213 4.48
 V1 = 24.012 Volts

26
 Since
V V
i 2 n

i = 1.502 amp. Ans.

Lesson 8 - SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

The theorem may be stated as follows.

“In a network of linear resistances containing more than one generator (or source of
emf or current) the current which flows at any point is the sum of all currents which
should flow at that point if each generator replaced for the time being by resistances
equal to their internal resistances. An ideal voltage source has an internal resistance
of zero and ideal current source is an infinite resistance”.

In other words, current in or voltage across, any conductor of the network is

obtained by superimposing the currents and voltages, due to each emf or current
source in the network. It is important to keep in mind that this theorem is applicable
only to linear networks where current is linearly related to voltage as per Ohm’s Law.

Illustrative Example:

Find the value of Vx using the Superposition theorem

x
10 20 45
a b
+ -
Vx

2A 30
24V 48V

Solution:
Vx  20x eqn. 1

27
Using Superposition Theorem

24 V
Xab = Xab 2A O.C. +
48 V S.C

I. Consider the 24 V: 2A O.C.

48V S.C.
10 20 45
b

X 48
ab 30
2A
24V

Let Xab 24V = Xab’

By Ohm’s Law

X ab'  24
10  20  30
X ab  0.4A

II. Consider the 2A: 24V S.C.

48V

10 20 45

2A 30

28
 By C.D.R.

 
 
10
X ab'  2 
   20  45(30) 
10
  
  4530 
X ab  0.417A

24V S.C.
III. Consider the 48V:
2A O.C.

10 20 45

iT

X 30
ba

48V

48V
Let Xba  24V S.C.
2A O.C.

30(20 10)
R t  45 
30  20 10

Rt = 60Ω

By Ohm’s Law

29
  30 
Xba’’’ = 0.8   
30 10 20

Xba’’’ = 0.4A

From eqn. 2

Xab = Xab’ + Xab’’ + Xab’’’

0.4+0.417+(-0.4) Xab = 0.417A

From eqn. 1

Vx = 20 Xab
= 20(0.417A)

Vx = 8.340V Ans.

30
Summative Test 1

1. Most of the energy used to fuel the CCAT house comes from
the sun, but a battery bank is also charged with 24 V
permanent magnet DC generators run by exercise bikes in the
basement. The flywheel on each bike is furnished with a
groove. Through this groove is a belt that is attached to the
generator's central shaft. The average person pedaling 70 rpm
spins the shaft creating an electrical current of 4 A. This allows
someone to get a comfortable workout while at the same time
charging the batteries.

1.Determine the power output of person pedaling a

stationary bicycle at the CCAT house.
2.How much work does the person do in one minute?
3. Over what total distance have the pedals moved in one
minute? (Assume a crank arm length of 18 cm.)

4. How fast are the person's feet moving while generating

power at the CCAT house?

With what average force does a typical person in the CCAT

house push down on the pedals?

2. Solve the following problems:

a. Calculate the resistance of a 1000 Watts

microwave designed for 27 Volts.

b. A pool heater running on 150V, and draws a

current of 30A. How much energy does it
use per week if it is used for 9 hours a day.

c. How many joules of energy are necessary

to run a telecision for 30 minutes if it is
hooked up to a 120-V line and has a
resistance of 6 ohms?
d. A microwave transforms 50 W of energy
when it is linked to a 20-V source. How
many electrons are leaving it in 3 hours?

3. If the potential difference between the ends of a wire of fixed

resistance is doubled, by how much does the electric power
increase?

31
4. Three resistors R1=1.00Ω, R2=2.000Ω, R3=2.00Ω are connected in parallel. The
parallel connection is attached to a V=3.00V voltage source. (a) What is the
equivalent resistance? (b) Find the current supplied by the source to the parallel
circuit. (c) Calculate the currents in each resistor and show that these add
together to equal the current output of the source. (d) Calculate the power
dissipated by each resistor. (e) Find the power output of the source and show that
it equals the total power dissipated by the resistors.

5. Consider the same potential difference (V=3.00V) applied to the same three
resistors connected in series. Would the equivalent resistance of the series circuit
be higher, lower, or equal to the three resistors in parallel? Would the current
through the series circuit be higher, lower, or equal to the current provided by the
same voltage applied to the parallel circuit? How would the power dissipated by
the resistor in series compare to the power dissipated by the resistors in parallel?

6. Two resistors connected in series (R1,R2) are connected to two resistors that are
connected in parallel (R3,R4). The series-parallel combination is connected to a
battery. Each resistor has a resistance of 10.00 Ohms. The wires connecting the
resistors and battery have negligible resistance. A current of 2.00 Amps runs
through resistor R1R1. What is the voltage supplied by the voltage source?

7. calculate the total current ( IT ) taken from the 12v supply.

8. Find the equivalent resistance, REQ for the following resistor combination circuit.

32
 9. A kitchen in North America has three appliances connected to a 120
V circuit with a 15 A circuit breaker: an 850 W coffee maker, a 1200 W
microwave oven, and a 900 W toaster.
a. Draw a schematic diagram of this circuit.
b. Which of these appliances can be operated simultaneously without
tripping the circuit breaker?

Problems in Networks, Laws and Theorems:

10. Resistors of R1= 10Ω,2= 4ΩR Rand3=8Ω are connected up to negligible resistance)
as shown. Find the current through each resistor. Use KVL and
KCL.

11. F1nd the voltage across the current source and the current passing
through the voltage source. Assume that I1=3A, R1=2Ω,
R2=3Ω, R3=2Ω, and V1=15V. Using maxwell’s mesh method

12. Find the voltage across R1 and R2. Nodal analysis

33
 13. Find V2, using superposition theorem

FINAL TOPIC

Lesson 1 - Millman’s Theorem

In Millman’s Theorem, the circuit is re-drawn as a parallel network of branches, each branch
containing a resistor or series battery/resistor combination. Millman’s Theorem is applicable
only to those circuits which can be redrawn accordingly. Here again, is our example circuit
used for the last two analysis methods:

And here is that same circuit, re-drawn for the sake of applying Millman’s Theorem:

34
By considering the supply voltage within each branch and the resistance within each branch,
Millman’s Theorem will tell us the voltage across all branches. Please note that I’ve labeled
the battery in the rightmost branch as “B 3 ” to clearly denote it as being in the third branch,
even though there is no “B 2 ” in the circuit!

Millman’s Theorem Equation

Millman’s Theorem is nothing more than a long equation, applied to any circuit drawn as a set
of parallel-connected branches, each branch with its own voltage source and series
resistance:

Substituting actual voltage and resistance figures from our example circuit for the variable
terms of this equation, we get the following expression:

35
The final answer of 8 volts is the voltage seen across all parallel branches, like this:

The polarity of all voltages in Millman’s Theorem is referenced to the same point. In the
example circuit above, I used the bottom wire of the parallel circuit as my reference point,
and so the voltages within each branch (28 for the R1 branch, 0 for the R2 branch, and 7 for
the R3 branch) were inserted into the equation as positive numbers. Likewise, when the
answer came out to 8 volts (positive), this meant that the top wire of the circuit was positive
with respect to the bottom wire (the original point of reference). If both batteries had been
connected backward (negative end up and positive ends down), the voltage for branch 1
would have been entered into the equation as -28 volts, the voltage for branch 3 as -7 volts,
and the resulting answer of -8 volts would have told us that the top wire was negative with
respect to the bottom wire (our initial point of reference).
Solving for Resistor Voltage Drops
To solve for resistor voltage drops, the Millman voltage (across the parallel network) must be
compared against the voltage source within each branch, using the principle of voltages
adding in series to determine the magnitude and polarity of the voltage across each resistor:

Solving for Branch Currents

To solve for branch currents, each resistor voltage drop can be divided by its respective
resistance (I=E/R):

36
Determining the Direction of Current
The direction of current through each resistor is determined by the polarity across each
resistor, not by the polarity across each battery, as the current can be forced back through a
battery, as is the case with B 3 in the example circuit. This is important to keep in mind since
Millman’s Theorem doesn’t provide as direct an indication of “wrong” current direction as
does the Branch Current or Mesh Current methods. You must pay close attention to the
polarities of resistor voltage drops as given by Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, determining the
direction of currents from that.

Millman’s Theorem is very convenient for determining the voltage across a set of parallel
branches, where there are enough voltage sources present to preclude solution via regular
series-parallel reduction method. It also is easy in the sense that it doesn’t require the use of
simultaneous equations. However, it is limited in that it only applied to circuits which can be
re-drawn to fit this form. It cannot be used, for example, to solve an unbalanced bridge
circuit. And, even in cases where Millman’s Theorem can be applied, the solution of
individual resistor voltage drops can be a bit daunting to some, the Millman’s Theorem
equation only providing a single figure for branch voltage.

37
As you will see, each network analysis method has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Each method is a tool, and there is no tool that is perfect for all jobs. The skilled technician,
however, carries these methods in his or her mind like a mechanic carries a set of tools in his
or her toolbox. The more tools you have equipped yourself with, the better prepared you will
be for any eventuality.
REVIEW:

 Millman’s Theorem treats circuits as a parallel set of series-component

branches.
 All voltages entered and solved for in Millman’s Theorem are polarity-
referenced at the same point in the circuit (typically the bottom wire of the
parallel network).

Example of Millman’s Theorem

Let us take the circuit as shown

below.

As per Millman’s theorem, the voltage across A and B

38
The Thevenin equivalent resistance of the circuit across node A and B is

Now, the rule of current through the 25Ω resistance is,

Lesson 2 - RECIPROCITY THEOREM

The concept of Reciprocity Theorem is straightforward. Suppose there is a source of
electricity in a linear bilateral electrical network. Obviously, for this source, suppose there is
a certain current in any other branch of the network. Now we change the position of the
source to the second branch. Then the same current will flow through the first branch. The
first branch means which previously consisted of the source.
Statement of Reciprocity Theorem
In any linear bilateral network, if a source produces a certain current in any other branch,
then the same source acting on the second branch produces the same current in the first
branch.

Suppose E is the emf of the source of a first branch, and I is the current through any
particular second branch of the network. Now we bring the source of emf E from the first
branch to the second branch. Then this source produces the same current I in the first
branch.

In other words, we can say the cause and effect are interchangeable in a linear bilateral
network. It simply means that E and I are mutually transferable. We call the ratio of E / I as
transfer resistance. Also in AC circuit, we call it as transfer impedance.

39
Example of Reciprocity Theorem
In the circuit below current flowing through the ammeter is 3 A.

Now after interchanging the position of the source of emf (battery) and the ammeter, the
same current of 3 A flows through the ammeter as shown in the figure below.

Here the transfer resistance ratio is 36/3 Ω or 12 Ω.

40
Lesson 4 - DELTA – WYE (Y) TRANSFORMATIONS
It is used to simplify resistance combinations which cannot be solved by
using series and parallel principles.

1. DELTA– Y Transformation
2. Y – DELTA Transformation

Examples:

a. connected resistors (πConnection)

b
a R1 b

R1 R2
R2 R 1 R 3

a c

R 3

41
 a

R a

R b
1

3
R
R R c
1

2 3
c
R
2
b

b. Y – connected resistors (T-connection)

1 R a 2
1
R a
R b
2

R R b R
c
c
3

1
Ra
a
R Rb 2
R
b 2

R Rc
c
3
3

42
Star Delta Conversion and Delta Star Conversion

Besides the series or parallel connection, we can connect the resistors or other circuit
elements also in STAR and DELTA connection.

Star to Delta Transformation

Let R1 R2 and R3 are three resistors. These resistors form a star connection with terminals 1, 2
and 3 respectively. Also, we consider the other three resistors Ra Rb and Rc. Again, these
resistors form a delta between terminals 1 & 2, 2 & 3 and 3 & 1 respectively. Now, we
imagine that the star and delta are equivalent to each other. We have shown these in the
figures below.

Star Delta Connections

43
Note: The word equivalent means that the delta network between the terminals 1, 2 and 3
replaces the corresponding star network between the same set of terminals and vise versa.

Concept for Star Delta or Delta Star Derivation

MAIN CONCEPT FOR THE DERIVATION: Resistance seen by the same pair of terminals must be
equal in both connections. WHY? Because during the conversion the terminals remain same
hence the resistance seen by any two terminals remains the same.
Step 1: Find resistances seen by each pair of terminals in both networks
Terminal Resistances for Star Network

Where,

R12 = resistance seen by terminals 1 & 2

R23 = resistance seen by terminals 2 & 3
R31 = resistance seen by terminals 3 & 1
For writing equations (i) to (iii), imagine a battery connected between terminals 1 and 2
(since we want to find R 12). Now, the resistance seen by this battery is R 1 + R2 (since terminal
3 is open circuited now). For R 23, connect the battery between terminals 2 and 3 and similarly
for R31.

44
Terminal Resistances for Delta Network

For writing equation (iv) to (vi), again imagine the battery connected between 1 & 2, Now
the battery encounters two parallel paths one containing R a while another path contains Rb &
Rc. Hence, resistance seen by terminals 1 and 2 in Delta connection i.e. R12 is Ra∥(Rb + Rc). In
the same manner, find R23 and R31.

Step 2: Manipulate equations to find R1 R2 and R3

Equating equation (i) and (iv), gives

45
Again, equating (ii) & (v) and (iii) & (vi) respectively gives

Now, by adding equation (vii), (viii) and (ix), we get,

Finally, subtracting equation (viii) from equation (x) to get R 1

In a similar way,

Step 3: Find the value of R1R2 + R2R3 + R3 R1

Then, putting the values of R 1, R2 and R3 from equation (xi), (xii) and (xiii) into R1R2 + R2R3+
R3 R1 and manipulating gives,

Step 4: The final step

Finally, divide equation (xiv) by equation (xi) to get, R a

46
Now, we get Rb and Rc in the same way

Find the equivalent resistance between A & B in the given network.

Solution:-

For the given network, we can easily determine the value of equivalent resistance i.e,
RA B through Star-Delta conversion.

We have

47
Above network can also be represent as below:-

Now, I am going to solved this network by using delta to star conversion as shown in the
figure given below:-

48
For the value of new star connected resistance are finding through direct formula of delta
to star conversion,as shown below

49
50
So, RA B / Requiv alent = R1 + R2 + R3 = 4Ω + 3.88Ω + 1.77Ω = 9.65Ω Answer

Lesson 5 - THEVENIN’S THEOREM

States that:

In any 2 terminals network of fixed resistances and constant sources of EMF & current.
The current in a load resistor connected to the output terminals is equal to the
current that would exist in the same resistor if it were connected in series with:

1. a simple EMF whose voltage is measured at the open

circuited network terminal and
2. a simple resistance whose magnitude is that of the network
looking back (resistance) from the two terminals into the network
with all the sources of current and EMF replaced by their
equivalent interval resistances.

Illustrative example:

Find IL using Thevenin’s Theorem

51
Solution: Using Thevenin

RO
b

+
V
- OC

RL
a

Since;

i  Voc
L R R  Eqn. 1
o L

Find Voc

2 + 12V
-

y
3 4

6
5 x z=0 + VOC
+ -
- 9V

Using loop analysis

MME at loop x

 x 5  3  6 3y  90

52
  14v  3y  9
MME at loop y

 y2  3  4 3x 12  0

3x  9 y  12

x  3y  4

Substitute eqn. (3) to eqn. (2)

 143y  4 3y  9

 42 y  3y  9 14(4)

y 1.667 Amp

From eqn. (3)

x  1Amp

KVL at loop 1

9  6x  4 y VOC  0

Voc  3.668Volts

Find Ro
2

3 4

b
5 6 Ro
a

53
a  63 64 43 
13.5 4

54
b 3  18

54
c   9
6

b
5 a b R
o
a

R  4.085
o

Draw the Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

RO
b
i

+ V
- OC

IL
RL =7
a

54
  3.668
i  0.331A
4.085  7

But;

I L i

Therefore;

iL  0.331A

Lesson 6 - NORTON’S THEOREM

States that:

“any two terminal active network containing voltage and current sources
and resistances when viewed from its output terminals is equivalent to a constant
current source and a parallel resistance. The constant current source is equal to the
current which would flow in a short circuit placed across the terminals and the
parallel resistance is the resistance of the network when viewed from these open
circuited terminals (or the looking back resistance) after all voltage and current
sources have removed and replaced by their equivalent internal resistances. ”

Illustrative Example:

Find i using Norton’s Theorem

4A

4A
4 6

+
52V -
a 6A b 2
i

55
Solution:

R
i  Isc o
 eqn.(1)
R 2
o

By loop analysis

b  a  6, a  b  6  eqn.(3)

KVL @ l1

 4a  4 4 6b  6 4 52  0

 4a  6b 12  eqn.(3)

Thus, substitute eqn. (2) to eqn. (3)

 4b  6 6b 12

b  3.6 Amp

But

I sc b 3.6 A, I ab  3.6

Find Ro

4 6
RO RO =10

56
 Determine the Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

I R 2
SC
o
i

From eqn. (1)

10
i  3.6
102

i  3Amp

Thus;

2 10
P  120 

(10 10)
L max 2

P  360watts
L max

Lesson 11 - MILLMAN’S THEOREM

States that:

“when any number of voltage sources and finite interval resistance other than zero are
connected in parallel combination is the ratio of the algebraic sum of the current
delivered when the voltage source are short circuited to the sum of the interval
resistances.”

In equation form;

57
LESSON 7-Series Resistance –Inductance

Inductors store energy in a magnetic field (produced by the current through wire). The
stored energy in an inductor tries to maintain a constant current through its windings.
Because of this, inductors oppose changes in current and act precisely the opposite of
capacitors, which oppose changes in voltage. A fully discharged inductor (no magnetic field),
having zero current through it, will initially act as an open-circuit when attached to a source
of voltage (as it tries to maintain zero current), dropping maximum voltage across its leads.

Over time, the inductor’s current he rises circuit, and the terminal voltage decreases
correspondingly. Once decreased to a minimum (zero for a “perfect” indu

level, and it will behave essentially as a short-circuit.

Using

When the switch is first closed, the voltage across the inductor will
immediately jump to battery voltage (acting as though it were an open-
circuit) and decay down to zero over time (eventually acting as though it
were a short-circuit). The voltage across the inductor is determined by
calculating how much voltage is being dropped across R, given the current
Through the inductor, and subtracting that voltage.
When the switch is first closed, the current is zero, then it increases over time until it is
equal to the battery voltage divided by the series resistance of 1 Ω. This behavior opposite
that of the series resistor-capacitor circuit, where current started at a maximum
and capacitor voltage at zero.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)voltage gives us:

V(t) – (VR – VL) =0

The votage drop across the resistor R is IxR (Ohms Law)

58
VR = IxR

The voltage drops across the inductor, L is by now our familiar express L (di/dt)

VL = L di/dt

Then the final expression for the individual voltage drops around the LR series circuit can be
given as,

Vt= IR + L(di/dt)

We can see that the voltage drop across the resistor depends upon the current, i, while the
voltage drop across the inductor depends upon the rate of change of the current, di/dt. When
the current is equal to zero, ( i = 0 ) at time t = 0 the above expression, which is also a first
order differential equation, can be rewritten to give the value of the current at any instant of
time as:

Expression for the Current in an LR Series Circuit

Where:
V is in Volts
R is in Ohms
L is in Henries
t is in Seconds
e is the base of the Natural Logarithm = 2.71828

Example:

1. The current through an inductor with inductance L = 10 –3 henry is given as iL(t) = 0.1 sin
106t. Find the voltage VL (t) across this inductor.

Solution:

We apply the definition for voltage across an inductor

VL(t) = L [{diL(t)} / dt]
VL(t) = L (d / dt)(0.1 sin 106t)
VL(t) = 10–3 106(.1) cos 106t
VL(t) = 100 cos 106t.
2. The figure shows a series circuit made up of a voltage source and two linear circuit
elements. Write an equation which describes the behavior of the circuit.

59
Solution:

By Kirchhoff's current law, the same current flows through all elements; it is designated in
the sketch by the symbol i, with the positive direction clockwise around the circuit. The
current will be the dependent variable in the equation that is to be written. As indicated in
Fig. a, the voltage across the resistance is vR = Ri, and that across the inductance is vL = L
(di / dt). The positive directions of these are taken in accordance with the positive direction
of i. Starting at the point P and going once clockwise around the circuit, from Kirchhoff's
voltage law:

∑v = e(t) – Ri – L (di / dt) = 0.

This can be rearranged into a more conventional form with the terms involving i on the left
side and the driving function on the right:

L (di / dt) + Ri = e(t)

This is a differential equation. If e(t) is a prescribed function of time, the equation can be
solved for i as a function of time. On the other hand, if i is given as a function of time, one
can solve for the e(t) which would produce this current.

60
Lesson 8- Series Resistance – Capacitance

When a voltage source is applied to an RC circuit, the capacitor, C charges up

through the resistance, R. The figure below shows a capacitor, ( C ) in series with a
resistor, ( R ) forming a RC Charging Circuit connected across a DC battery supply (
Vs ) via a mechanical switch. at time zero, when the switch is first closed, the
capacitor gradually charges up through the resistor until the voltage across it
reaches the supply voltage of the battery. The manner in which the capacitor
charges up is shown below.

Vs –R x i (t) –Vc (t) = 0

The capacitor continues charging up and the voltage difference between Vs and Vc
reduces, so too does the circuit current, i. Then at its final condition greater than
five time constants ( 5T ) when the capacitor is said to be fully charged, t = ∞, i = 0,
q = Q = CV. At infinity the charging current finally diminishes to zero and the
capacitor acts like an open circuit with the supply voltage value entirely across the
capacitor as Vc = Vs.

Vc = VS (1 –e -t/RC )

Where:

Vc is the voltage across the capacitor Vs is the supply voltage

t is the elapsed time since the application of the supply voltage RC is the time
constant of the RC charging circuit

As the voltage across the capacitor Vc changes with time, and is therefore a
different value at each time constant up to 5T, we can calculate the value of
capacitor voltage, Vc at any given point.

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Example:

1. Consider the capacitor shown in the figure. The capacitance C(t) is given by C(t) = C0(1 +
0.5 sin t). The voltage across this capacitor is given by v(t) =2 sin ωt. Find the current
through the capacitor.

Solution:

We can find the charge on the capacitor q(t) by using the definition q(t) = C v(t). In this
problem C is a time varying function C(t).
q(t) = C(t) v(t)
q(t) = C0(1 + 0.5 sin t) (2 sin ωt).

Since,

i(t) = (dq / dt), we have

i(t)= [C0(1 + 0.5 sin t) (2 sin ωt)]
= (2 sin ωt)(0.5 C0 cos t) + C0(1 + 0.5 sin t) (2ω cos ωt).
i(t) = C0 sin ωt cos t + 2ω C0 cos ωt (1 + 0.5 sin t).

2. In the circuit shown in the figure, the voltage across the capacitance element certain
instant of time is measured to be 40 volts as shown. At this instant, what is the current in
the circuit, and at what rate is vc changing?

Solution:

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By Kirchhoff's voltage law,

ES = vR + vC
vR = ES – vC
= 100 – 40 V.
Voltage across the resistance is 60 volts; hence, the current is
i = (vR / R) = [60 / (3000)] = 0.020 amp.

The current causes the voltage across the capacitance to change at a rate determined by C
[(dvc) / dt] = i, or 0.010 × 10–6 [(dvc) / dt] = 0.020 amp, from which [(dvc) / dt] = 2 ×
106 volts/sec.

Summative test 2

1. Find out the voltage across 2 Ohms resistance and current through the 2
ohms resistance using Millman’s Theorem.

2. Find I4, using Source Conversion Technique, Norton’s Theorem and

Thevenin’s Theorem.

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 I4

3. Find RT if R = 1Ω using delta-wye/ wye -delta transformations.

4. A circuit contains four nodes lettered A, B, C, and D. There are six

branches, one between each pair of nodes. Let i AB be the current in
branch AB directed from node A to node B through the element. Then
given i AB = 16 mA, and i DA = 39 mA, find i AC, iBD if i CD = (a) 23 mA; (b) –
23 mA.
5. Given two circuits (see figure) in parallel, one branch consisting of a
resistance of 15 ohms and the other of an inductive reactance of 10
ohms. When the impressed voltage is 110, find the
a. Current through the ohmic resistance.
b. Current through the inductive reactance.
c. Line current.
d. Power factor.
e. Angle of lag of the line current.

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6. As shown in the figure, a resistance of 130 ohms and a capacitance of 30
microfarads are connected in parallel across a 230-volt; 50 hertz supply.
Find the following:
a. Current in each circuit.
b. Total current.
c. Phase difference between the total current and the applied voltage.
d. Power consumed.
e. Power factor.

7. A series circuit consists of a 30-microfarad capacitance and a resistance of

50 ohms connected across a 110-volt, 60-hertz supply. Calculate the,
a. Impedance of the circuit.
b. Current in the circuit.
c. Voltage drops across the resistance.
d. Voltage drops across the capacitance.
e. Angle between the voltage and the current.
f. Power loss.
g. Power factor of the circuit.

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