SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (20A02504a) – ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

UNIT-V

1. (a) Distinguish the valve type and zinc oxide lighting arresters.
Valve type lightning arrester (Non Linear Surge Diverter):

Valve type arresters incorporate non-linear resistors and are extensivelyused on

systems operating at high voltages. Fig. (i) shows the various parts of a valvetype
arrester. It consists of two assemblies (i) series spark gaps and (ii) non-linear
resistor discs(made of material such as thyrite or metrosil) in series. The non-linear
elements are connected inseries with the spark gaps. Both the assemblies are
accommodated in tight porcelain container.

(i) The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of a number of identical spark
gaps inseries. Each gap consists of two electrodes with fixed gap spacing. The
voltage distributionacross the gaps is linearised by means of additional resistance
elements (called gradingresistors) across the gaps. The spacing of the series gaps is
such that it will withstand thenormal circuit voltage. However, an overvoltage will
cause the gap to breakdown, causingthe surge current to ground via the non-linear
resistors.

(ii) The non-linear resistor discs are made of an inorganic compound such as
Thyrite or Metrosil.These discs are connected in series. The non-linear resistors
have the property of offeringa high resistance to current flow when normal system
voltage is applied, but a low resistanceto the flow of high-surge currents. In other
words, the resistance of these non-linearelements decreases with the increase in
current through them and vice-versa.

Advantages:

(i) They provide very effective protection (especially for transformers and cables)
against surges.
(ii) They operate very rapidly taking less than a second.
(iii) The impulse ratio is practically unity.
Breakdown Voltage under surge conditions
Impulse ratio =
Breakdown Voltage under low frequency conditions

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Limitations:

(i) They may fail to check the surges of very steep wave front from reaching the
terminal apparatus. This calls for additional steps to check steep-fronted waves.
(ii) Their performance is adversely affected by the entry of moisture into the
enclosure. This necessitates effective sealing of the enclosure at all times.

Applications:

According to their application, the valve type arresters are classified as (i)
station type and (ii) line type. The station type arresters are generally used for the
protection of important equipment in power stations operating onvoltages upto 220
kV or higher. The line type arresters are also used for stations handling voltages
upto 66 kV.

Metal oxide surge arrester (MOA):The metal oxide surge arrester abbreviated
as MOA is a recently developed ideal surge arrester. It is a revolutionary advanced
surge protective device for power systems. It is constructed by a series connection
of zinc oxide (ZnO) elements having a highly non- linear resistance. The excellent
non-linear characteristic of zinc oxide element has enabled to make surge arresters
without series connected spark gaps, space i.e., fully solid-state arresters suitable
for system protection upto the highest voltages.

The main constituent of the ceramic material is zinc oxide, the non-
linear resistor made of this material is popularly known as zinc oxide element and
surge arresters made of zinc oxide elements are called metal oxide surge arresters.
Such material can be used to make resistors with a much higher degree of non-
linearity over a large current range. With such resistors, one can design arresters
having voltage-current characteristics very close to ideal. Because of the high
degree of non-linearity, this material allows considerable simplification in arrester
(diverter) design.

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The metal oxide surge arrester has the following advantages over conventional
arrester.

1. Series spark-gap is not required.

2. It has very simple construction and is a fully solid-state protective device.
3. Significant reduction in size.
4. Quick response for steep discharge current.
5. Very small time delay in responding to overvoltage’s.
6. Superior protective performance.
7. Outstanding durability for multiple operating duty cycle.
8. Negligible power follow-up current after a surge operation.
Applications:

MOA is especially suitable for gas insulated sub-stations (GIS), since it

can be installed directly in SF6.

(b) Illustrate in detail about the insulation coordination.

INSULATION COORDINATION:

Insulation coordination is the correlation of the insulation of electrical equipment

and lines with the characteristics of protective devices such that the insulation of
the whole power system is protected from excessive overvoltages.

The main aim of insulation

coordination is the selection of suitable
values for the insulation level of the
different components in any power
system and their arrangement in a
reasonable manner so that the whole
power system is protected from
overvoltages of excessive magnitude.
Thus, the insulation strength of various
equipment, like transformers, circuit
breakers, etc. Should be higher than that
of the lightning arresters and other surge
protective devices. The insulation
coordination is thus the matching of the
volt-time flashover and
breakdowncharacteristics of equipment and protective devices, in order to obtain
maximum protective margin at a reasonable cost. The volt time curves of
equipment to be protected and the protective device are shown in fig.

Curve A is the volt-time curve of the protective device and curve B is the
volt-time curve of the equipment to be protected. Form volt-time curves A and B of
FIG. it is clear that any insulation having a voltage withstanding strength in excess

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 SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION (20A02504a) – ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

of the insulation strength of curve B will be protected by the protective device of

curve A.

2. What are the causes of over voltages arising in a power system? Why
is it necessary to protect the lines and other equipment of the power
system against over voltages?
The normal operating voltages of the system do not stress the insulation.
But the voltage stresses due to over voltages can be high that they may become
dangerous to both the lines as well as the connected equipment and may cause
damage, unless some protective measures against these over voltages are taken.
Over voltages arising on a power system can be generally classified into two main
categories as follows.

External over voltages:

Atmospheric disturbances, mainly due to lightning are the main reasons for over
voltages. These over voltages take the form of unidirectional impulse (surge) whose
amplitude is independent of the operating voltage of the system. These are caused
due to:

1. Direct lightning strokes.

2. Induced over voltages due to lightning discharge taking place near the line
(known as Side stroke).
3. Changing atmospheric conditions along the length induces voltages.
4. Presence of charged clouds nearby induces over voltages by electrostatic
induction.
5. Friction effects of small particles such as dust or dry snow in the
atmosphere or due to change in the altitude of the line also induce voltages by
electrostatic phenomena.

Internal over voltages:

These overvoltages are caused by changes in the operation conditions of the

network can further be divided into two groups as follows.

1. Switching overvoltages ( Transient overvoltages of high frequency):

These overvoltages are caused due to switching operation or fault condition. These
overvoltages are generally oscillatory and take the form of a damped sinusoidal.
The frequency of these overvoltages may vary from few hundred Hz to few kHz and
it is governed by the inherent capacitances and inductances of the circuit like
switching of HV reactors and switching of a transformer at no load.

2. Temporary overvoltages (Steady state overvoltages of power

frequency):

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These are caused due to disconnection of load. Transient overvoltages arising on

the power system are assessed by an overvoltage factor.

Overvoltage factor is defined as the ratio of the peak overvoltage to the rated peak
system frequency phase voltage. This is also termed as amplitude factor.

The study of overvoltages includes the magnitudes, shapes, duration, and

frequency of occurrence should be done not only at the point where an overvoltage
originates but also at all other points along the transmission network thorough
which the surges may travel. By knowing the causes and effects of these
overvoltages so that preventive measures can be taken.

3. Explain the term insulation coordination. Describe the construction of

volt-time curve and terminology associated with impulse testing.

INSULATION COORDINATION:

Insulation coordination is the correlation of the insulation of electrical equipment

and lines with the characteristics of protective devices such that the insulation of
the whole power system is protected from excessive overvoltages.

The main aim of insulation

coordination is the selection of suitable
values for the insulation level of the
different components in any power
system and their arrangement in a
reasonable manner so that the whole
power system is protected from
overvoltages of excessive magnitude.
Thus, the insulation strength of various
equipment, like transformers, circuit
breakers, etc. Should be higher than that
of the lightning arresters and other surge
protective devices. The insulation
coordination is thus the matching of the
volt-time flashover and
breakdowncharacteristics of equipment and protective devices, in order to obtain
maximum protective margin at a reasonable cost. The volt time curves of
equipment to be protected and the protective device are shown in fig.

Curve A is the volt-time curve of the protective device and curve B is the
volt-time curve of the equipment to be protected. Form volt-time curves A and B of
FIG. it is clear that any insulation having a voltage withstanding strength in excess
of the insulation strength of curve B will be protected by the protective device of
curve A.

VOLT-TIME CURVE:

The breakdown voltage of any insulation or the flashover voltage of a gap

depends upon both the magnitude of the voltage and the time of application of the

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voltage. The volt-time curve is a graph of the crust flashover voltages plotted
against time to flashover for a series of impulse applications of a given wave shape.
The construction of the volt-time curve and the terminology associated with
impulse voltage testing are shown in fig.

Fig. Volt-time curve

The construction of wave shape of the volt-time curve is based on the

application of impulse voltages of the same wave shape but of different peak values
to the insulation whose volt-time curve is required. If an impulse voltage of a given
wave shape and polarity is adjusted so that the test specimen (i.e., a particular
insulation) flashes over on the front of the wave at which flashover occurs is called
front flashover.

If an impulse voltage of the same wave shape is adjusted so that the

specimen flashes over on the tail of the wave at 50% of theapplications & fails to
flashover on the other 50% of the applications the crest value of this voltage is
called critical flashover voltage. If an impulse voltage causes flashover of the test
specimen exactly at the crest value then it is called fresh flashover. If flashover
does not take place, the wave is called full wave and its flashover does takes place,
the wave is called a copped wave. The applied impulse voltage reduced to just below
the flashover voltage of the test specimen is called the ‘critical withstand voltage’.
The rated withstand voltage is the crest value of impulse wave that the test
specimen will withstand without disruptive discharge.

4. Describe the protection of stations and sub-stations against direct

lighting stokes with neat schematic diagram.
Protection against Lightning over Voltages:

Transients or surges on the power system may originate from switching

and from other causes but the most important and dangerous surges are those
caused by lightning. The lightning surges may cause serious damage to the
expensive equipment in the power system (e.g. generators, transformers etc.) either

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by direct strokes on the equipment or by strokes on the transmission lines that

reach the equipment as travelling waves. It is necessary to provide protection
against both kinds of surges. The most commonly used devices for protection
against lightning surges are:

1) Earthing screen
2) Overhead ground wires
3) Lightning arresters or Surge diverters

Earthing screen provides protection to power stations and sub-stations

against direct strokes whereas overhead ground wires protect the transmission
lines against direct lightning strokes. However, lightning arresters or surge
diverters protect the station apparatus against both direct strokes and the strokes
that come into the apparatus as travelling waves. We shall briefly discuss these
methods of protection.

1) The Earthing Screen:

The power stations and sub-stations generally house expensive

equipment. These stations can be protected against direct lightning strokes by
providing earthing screen. It consists of a network of copper conductors (generally
called shield or screen) mounted all over the electrical equipment in the sub-station
or power station. The shield is properly connected to earth on at least two points
through low impedance. On the occurrence of direct stroke on the station, screen
provides a low resistance path by which lightning surges are conducted to ground.
Inthis way, station equipment is protected against damage. The limitation of this
method is that it does not provide protection against the travelling waves which
may reach the equipment in the station.

2) Overhead Ground Wires:

The most effective method of providing protection totransmission lines

against direct lightning strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires as shown in
Fig. For simplicity, one ground wire and one line conductor are shown. The ground
wires are placed above the line conductors at such positions that practically all
lightning strokes are intercepted by them (i.e. ground wires). The ground wires are
grounded at each tower or pole through as low resistance as possible. Due to their
proper location, the *ground wires will take up all the lightning strokes instead of
allowing them to line conductors.

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When the direct lightning stroke occurs on the transmission line, it will
be taken up by the ground wires. The heavy lightning current (10 kA to 50 kA) from
the ground wire flows to the ground, thus protecting the line from the harmful
effects of lightning. It may be mentioned here that the degree of protection provided
by the ground wires depends upon the footing resistance of the tower. Suppose, for
example, tower-footing resistance is R1 ohms and that the lightning current from
tower to ground is I1 amperes. Then the tower *rises to a potential Vt given by:

Vt = I1R1

Since V t (= I1R1) is the approximate voltage between tower and line

conductor, this is also the voltage that will appear across the string of insulators. If
the value of V t is less than that required to cause insulator flashover, no trouble
results. On the other hand, if V t is excessive, the insulator flashover may occur.
Since the value of Vtdepends upon tower-footing resistance R1, the value of this
resistance must be kept as low as possible to avoid insulator flashover.

Advantages:

(i) It provides considerable protection against direct lightning strokes on

transmission lines.
(ii) A grounding wire provides damping effect on any disturbance travelling along
the line as it acts as a short-circuited secondary.
(iii) It provides a certain amount of electrostatic shielding against external fields.

Disadvantages:

(i) It requires additional cost.

(ii)There is a possibility of its breaking and falling across the line conductors,
thereby causing a short-circuit fault.

3) Lightning Arresters:

The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical
system against direct lightning strokes but they fail to provide protection against
travelling waves which may reach the terminal apparatus. The lightning arresters
or surge diverters provide protection against such surges.

A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a protective device which

conducts the high voltage surges on the power system to the ground.

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Fig.(i) shows the basic form of a surge diverter. It consists of a spark gap in series
with a non-linear resistor. One end of the diverter is connected to the terminal of
the equipment to be protected and the other end is effectively grounded. The length
of the gap is so set that normal line voltage is not enough to cause an arc across
the gap but a dangerously highvoltage will break down the air insulation and form
an arc. The property of the non-linear resistance is that its resistance decreases as
the voltage (or current) increases and vice-versa. This is clear from the *volt/amp
characteristic of the resistor shown in Fig (ii).

Operation: The action of the lightning arrester or surge diverter is

(i) Under normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i.e. it conducts no
current to earth or the gap is non- conducting.
(ii) On the occurrence of overvoltage, the air insulation across the gap breaks down
and an arc is formed, providing a low resistance path for the surge to the ground.
In this way, the excess charge on the line due to the surge is harmlessly conducted
through the arrester to the ground instead of being sent back over the line.
(iii) It is worthwhile to mention the function of non-linear resistor in the operation of
arrester. As the gap sparks over due to overvoltage, the arc would be a short-circuit
on the power system and may cause power-follow current in the arrester. Since the
characteristic of the resistor is to offer high resistance to high voltage (or current),
it prevents the effect of short-circuit. After the surge is over, the resistor offers high
resistance to make the gap non-conducting. Two things must be taken care of in
the design of a lightning arrester. Firstly, when the surge is over, the arc in gap
should cease. If the arc does not go out, the current would continue to flow through
the resistor and both resistor and gap may be destroyed. Secondly, I R drop (where
I is the surge current) across the arrester when carrying surge current should not
exceed the breakdown strength of the insulation of the equipment to be protected.

5. (b) Describe the construction & principle of operation of valve type

lightning arrester.
Valve type lightning arrester (Non Linear Surge Diverter):

Valve type arresters incorporate non-linear resistors and are extensivelyused on

systems operating at high voltages. Fig. (i) shows the various parts of a valvetype
arrester. It consists of two assemblies (i) series spark gaps and (ii) non-linear
resistor discs(made of material such as thyrite or metrosil) in series. The non-linear
elements are connected inseries with the spark gaps. Both the assemblies are
accommodated in tight porcelain container.

(i) The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of a number of identical spark
gaps inseries. Each gap consists of two electrodes with fixed gap spacing. The
voltage distributionacross the gaps is linearised by means of additional resistance
elements (called gradingresistors) across the gaps. The spacing of the series gaps is
such that it will withstand thenormal circuit voltage. However, an overvoltage will
cause the gap to breakdown, causingthe surge current to ground via the non-linear
resistors.

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(ii) The non-linear resistor discs are made of an inorganic compound such as
Thyrite or Metrosil.These discs are connected in series. The non-linear resistors
have the property of offeringa high resistance to current flow when normal system
voltage is applied, but a low resistanceto the flow of high-surge currents. In other
words, the resistance of these non-linearelements decreases with the increase in
current through them and vice-versa.

Operation:Under normal conditions, the normal system voltage is insufficient to

cause the breakdownof air gap assembly. On the occurrence of an overvoltage, the
breakdown of the series sparkgap takes place and the surge current is conducted
to earth via the non-linear resistors. Since themagnitude of surge current is very
large, the non-linear elements will offer a very low resistance to thepassage of
surge. The result is that the surge will rapidly go to earth instead of being sent
back overthe line. When the surge is over, the non-linear resistors assume high
resistance to stop the flow ofcurrent.

The main function of the surge diverter is the protection of the insulation against
dangerously high over voltages and for this reason the breakdown voltage of the
diverter at system frequency is made greater than 1.8 times the normal value.

Advantages:

(iv) They provide very effective protection (especially for transformers and cables)
against surges.
(v) They operate very rapidly taking less than a second.
(vi) The impulse ratio is practically unity.
Breakdown Voltage under surge conditions
Impulse ratio =
Breakdown Voltage under low frequency conditions

Limitations:

(iii) They may fail to check the surges of very steep wave front from reaching the
terminal apparatus. This calls for additional steps to check steep-fronted waves.
(iv) Their performance is adversely affected by the entry of moisture into the enclosure.
This necessitates effective sealing of the enclosure at all times.

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Applications:

According to their application, the valve type arresters are classified as (i)
station type and (ii) line type. The station type arresters are generally used for the
protection of important equipment in power stations operating onvoltages upto 220
kV or higher. The line type arresters are also used for stations handling voltages
upto 66 kV.

6. (a) What is voltage surge? Draw typical lightning voltage surge.

Voltage Surge:

A sudden rise in voltage for a very short duration on the power system is
known as a voltage surge or transient voltage.

Transients or surges are of temporary nature and exist for a very short
duration (a few hundred µs) but they cause overvoltages on the power system. They
originate from switching and from other causes but by far the most important
transients are those caused by lightning striking a transmission line. When
lightning strikes a line, the surge rushes along the line, just as a flood of water
rushes along a narrow valley when the retaining wall of a reservoir at its head
suddenly gives way. In most of the cases, such surges may cause the line
insulators (near the point where lightning has struck) to flash over and may
also damage the nearby transformers, generators or other equipment connected to
the line if the equipment is not suitably protected.

Fig. Wave-form of a typical lightning surge.

The voltage build-up is taken along y-axis and the time along x-axis. It may be seen
that lightning introduces a steep-fronted wave. The steeper the wave front, the
more rapid is the build-up of voltage at any point in the network. In most of the
cases, this build-up is comparatively rapid, being of the order of 1-5 µs. Voltage
surges are generally specified in terms of *rise time t1 and the time t2 to decay to
half of the peak value. For example, a 1/50 µs surge is one which reaches its
maximum value in 1µs and decays to half of its peak value is 50 µs.

(b) Discuss the causes of over voltages.

The normal operating voltages of the system do not stress the insulation.
But the voltage stresses due to over voltages can be high that they may become

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dangerous to both the lines as well as the connected equipment and may cause
damage, unless some protective measures against these over voltages are taken.
Over voltages arising on a power system can be generally classified into two main
categories as follows.

External over voltages:

Atmospheric disturbances, mainly due to lightning are the main reasons for over
voltages. These over voltages take the form of unidirectional impulse (surge) whose
amplitude is independent of the operating voltage of the system. These are caused
due to:

1. Direct lightning strokes.

2. Induced over voltages due to lightning discharge taking place near the line
(known as Side stroke).
3. Changing atmospheric conditions along the length induces voltages.
4. Presence of charged clouds nearby induces over voltages by electrostatic
induction.
5. Friction effects of small particles such as dust or dry snow in the
atmosphere or due to change in the altitude of the line also induce voltages
by electrostatic phenomena.

Internal over voltages:

These overvoltages are caused by changes in the operation conditions of the

network can further be divided into two groups as follows.

1. Switching overvoltages ( Transient overvoltages of high frequency):

These overvoltages are caused due to switching operation or fault condition. These
overvoltages are generally oscillatory and take the form of a damped sinusoidal.
The frequency of these overvoltages may vary from few hundred Hz to few kHz and
it is governed by the inherent capacitances and inductances of the circuit like
switching of HV reactors and switching of a transformer at no load.

2. Temporary overvoltages (Steady state overvoltages of power

frequency):

These are caused due to disconnection of load. Transient overvoltages arising on

the power system are assessed by an overvoltage factor.

Overvoltage factor is defined as the ratio of the peak overvoltage to the rated peak
system frequency phase voltage. This is also termed as amplitude factor.

The study of overvoltages includes the magnitudes, shapes, duration, and

frequency of occurrence should be done not only at the point where an overvoltage
originates but also at all other points along the transmission network thorough
which the surges may travel. By knowing the causes and effects of these
overvoltages so that preventive measures can be taken.

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3. Explain the following: (i) Solid Grounding (ii) Resistance Grounding

(iii)Reactance Grounding

(i) Solid Grounding: When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g., 3- phase
generator, 3-phase transformer etc.) is directly connected to earth through a wire of
negligible resistance and reactance, it is called solid grounding or effective grounding.

Fig.9 shows the solid grounding of the

neutral point. Since the neutral point is directly
connected to earth through a wire, the neutral
point is held at earth potential under all
conditions.

Therefore, under fault conditions, the voltage

of any conductor to earth will not exceed the
normal phase voltage of the system.
Fig.9

Advantages:

(i) The neutral is effectively held at earth potential.

(ii) When earth fault occurs on any phase, the resultant capacitive current I C is in
phase opposition to the fault current IF. The two currents completely cancel each other.
Therefore, no arcing ground or over-voltage conditions can occur.

Consider a line to ground fault in line B as shown in Fig.10. The capacitive

currents flowing in the healthy phases R and Y are IR and IY respectively. The resultant
capacitive current IC is the phasor sum of IR and IY. In addition to these capacitive
currents, the power source also supplies the fault current IF. This fault current will go
from fault point to earth, then to neutral point N and back to the fault point through
the faulty phase. The path of IC is capacitive and that of IF is inductive. The two
currents are in phase opposition and completely cancel each other. Therefore, no
arcing ground phenomenon or over-voltage conditions can occur.

Fig.10

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(iii) When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, the phase to earth voltage
of the faulty phase becomes zero.

(iv) It becomes easier to protect the system from earth faults which frequently occur on
the system. When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, a large fault
current flows between the fault point and the grounded neutral.

Disadvantages:

(i) The solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since the fault has to be
cleared by the circuit breakers, the heavy earth fault currents may cause the burning
of circuit breaker contacts.

(ii) The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in the neighbouring
communication lines

Applications: Solid grounding is used for voltages upto 33kV with total power capacity
not exceeding 5000kVA.

Resistance Grounding: When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g., 3-phase
generator, 3-phase transformer etc.) is connected to earth through a resistor to limit
the fault current to a safe value, it is called Resistance Grounding.

Fig.11 shows the grounding of neutral point through a resistor R. The value of R should
neither be very low nor very high. If the value
of earthing resistance R is very low, the earth
fault current will be large and the system
becomes similar to the solid grounding system.
If the value of earthing resistance R is very
high, the system conditions become similar to
ungrounded neutral system.

Fig.11

Advantages:

(i) By adjusting the value of R, the arcing grounds can be minimized. Suppose earth
fault occurs in phase B as shown in Fig.12. The capacitive currents IR and IY flow in the
healthy phases R and Y respectively. The fault current IF lags behind the phase voltage
of the faulted phase by a certain angle depending upon the earthing resistance R and
the reactance of the system upto the point of fault. The fault current I F can be resolved
into two components: (a) IF1 in phase with the faulty phase voltage. (b) IF2 lagging
behind the faulty phase voltage by 90°.

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F
i
g
.
Fig.12

(ii) The earth fault current is small due to the presence of earthing resistance.
Therefore, interference with communication circuits is reduced.

(iii) It improves the stability of the system.

Disadvantages:

(i) Since the system neutral is displaced during earth faults, the equipment has to be
insulated for higher voltages.

(ii) This system is costlier than the solidly grounded system.

Applications: It is used on a system operating at voltages between 2.2kV and 33kV

with power source capacity more than 5000kVA.

Reactance Grounding: In this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and
ground as shown in Fig.13. The purpose of reactance is to limit the earth fault current.
This method of grounding may be used for the
neutral of Synchronous Motors and also for
circuits having large charging currents.

Disadvantages: (i) In this system, the fault

current required to operate the protective device
is higher than that of resistance grounding for
the same fault conditions.

(ii) High transient voltages appear under fault

conditions.

Fig.13

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