Prof.

Anuja Nair
Assistant Professor
Computer Science & Engineering Department
Institute of Technology
Nirma University
Computer Architecture
Hardware
• Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes
a computer system.
• Example: monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard drive disk (HDD),
system unit (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc. all of
which are physical objects that can be touched.
Software
• Computer software, or simply software, also known as computer programs, is the
non-tangible component of computers.
• It represents the set of programs that govern the operation of a computer system and
make the hardware run.
• Computer software contrasts with computer hardware, which is the physical
component of computers.
• One major example is operating system. All computers require an operating system.
E.g. OS ( Disk operating System, Windows, Linux, Mac etc.)
Types of Software
• System Software
• To control operation and extend the processing capabilities of computer system.
• e.g. Operating System, Compiler, Assembler, etc.

• Application Software
• Designed for user specific need.
• General purpose
• e.g. MS Office, Excel etc.
• Specific purpose
• Custom built according to requirement of user.
System Software
• Operating System
• Compiler : translates high level language to machine level language
• Assembler : translates assembly or low level language to machine language
• Loader : which loads OS part and object program into main memory for execution purpose.
E.g. bootstrap loader.
• Linker : which binds code of source and library file to make executable programs.
• Editor : used to write a program.
• Translator : which converts one language into other. (Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter)
• Macro processor : Replace symbolic meaning into equivalent code. Also, called pre-processor.
• Interpreter : translates line by line high level language into machine language.
Register
• A component inside a central processing unit for storing information
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• A central processing unit (CPU) is the hardware within a computer that carries out
the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetical, logical,
and input/output operations of the system.
• CPU is a combination of ALU (arithmetic logic unit) and CU (Control Unit).
• ALU
• It performs all arithmetic calculations and takes logical decision.

• CU
• It manages and coordinates operations of all other components of computer system.
• It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit and input and output devices how to
respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor.
Bus and System Bus
• In computer architecture, a bus is a communication system that transfers data between
components inside a computer, or between computers.
• This expression covers all related hardware components (wire, optical fiber, etc.) and
software, including communication protocols.
• Can be parallel or serial.
Memory Unit
• Storage unit for processing data and information.
• Holds instructions and data needed for programs that are currently running
• Two types of storage:
• Primary/Main storage
• Secondary storage
Classification of Main Memory
1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
1. Stores current program or data.
2. Stores temporary data of current program.
3. Less space in comparison to secondary storage.
4. Volatile (data losses on power off)
5. Comparatively more expensive.
6. Fast in operation.

2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

Read only Memory(ROM)
• ROM is used for storing programs that are PERMENTLY resident in the computer.
The ROM portion of main memory is needed for storing an initial program called
bootstrap loader, witch is to start the computer software operating when power is turned
on
Secondary Memory
• A nonvolatile storage medium
• Contents retained while power is off
• Hard disk drives are most common
• Records data magnetically on a circular disk
• Provides fast access to large amounts of data

• USB flash memory devices

• High capacity device plugs into USB port
• Portable, reliable, and fits easily in a pocket

• e.g. Hard disk (HDD), CD, DVD, Pen Drive, Removable hard disk
Input Devices
• Accept data and instructions from the user or from another computer system.
• Example: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Mike

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Output Devices
Return Processed data back to the user or other computer system
Example: Printer, Monitor, Speaker

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Classification of programming languages
• Machine or Low level language
• Assembly language
• High level language

• Note: Refer the document “Classification of Programming Languages”.

Summary of characteristics of languages
Sr. No Language Characteristics

1. Machine Language 1. Machine dependent

2. Represented as 0s and 1s.

2. Assembly Language 1. Machine dependent

2. Uses mnemonics
3. 1 to 1 language i.e. for assembly language instruction generated
3. High-level Language 1. Machine independent
2. Uses instructions which seem English – like.
3. 1 to many language i.e. for high level instruction, many machine
language generated (OS specific).
Compiler
• Compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in
a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target
language, often having a binary form known as object code). The most common reason for
wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program.
• The name "compiler" is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-
level programming language to a lower level language (e.g., assembly language or machine code).
• If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different
from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is known as a cross-compiler.
• A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a decompiler.
• A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a source-to-source
compiler.
Interpreter
A translating program that translates and executes the statements in sequence
• Assembler or compiler produce machine code as output, which is then executed in a separate
step i.e. translates line by line conversion of high level language into low level programs.
• An interpreter translates a statement and then immediately executes the statement
• Interpreters can be viewed as simulators

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Compilers

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Assembler
• An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions (assembly language)
and converts them into a pattern of bits (machine language) that the computer's
processor can use to perform its basic operations.
• e.g. Microprocessor 8085, 8088.
• Instruction: ADD R1, R2

• Note: Refer the document “compiler_assembler_linker_loader”.

Compiler vs. Interpreter
Sr. No. Particular Compiler Interpreter
1. Scheme Compiler scans the whole program at Interpreter scans the program line by
a time and lists out error if any. line and stop scanning whenever error
occurs.
2. Manner Compiler converts the whole source Interpreter converts the source
code into object code at a time. programs.
3. Source Code After compilation, source code is not For every execution run, source is
required. required.
4. Speed Execution is faster Execution is slower.
5. Object Code The object code is generated when Generates object code for each line
the program is error free. immediately if it is error free.
6. Memory Requires more memory. Requires less memory.