Elements of Mechanical Engineering

MODULE-I: ENERGY RESOURCES, BASIC CONCEPTS OF

THERMODYNAMICS AND STEAM FORMATION
INTRODUCTION
ENERGY:
“Energy‟ is a word derived from the Greek word ―Energia”, meaning capacity to do
work. Energy is defined as the capacity either latent or apparent to do work. Energy exists in
various forms such as mechanical energy, electrical energy, thermal energy and chemical
energy. One form of energy can be readily converted into another form, but the total amount of
energy remains constant before and after the transformation.

Energy is the basic ingredient of all modern societies. Energy is required to fulfill the
basic needs of food, housing, clothing, medical aid and education, etc, as well as for travel and
communication. More and more production of energy per person enhances the comforts,
conveniences and pleasures of life. Hence energy can be treated as an essence of modern
civilization and the per capita consumption of energy is regarded as an index of advancement of
a society.

Various sources of energy:

The various sources of energy are (i) Fossil fuels, (ii) Atomic fuels (nuclear energy), (iii)
Flow of river water (hydro energy), (iv) Sun (solar energy), (v) Wind, (vi) Tides, (vii) Earth
(geothermal energy), (viii) Bio-mass, etc

Different sources of energy:

The sources of energy are classified in the following two ways:
(a) Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy
(b) Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy
Conventional energy sources
The sources of energy which provide a net supply of energy are called conventional sources of
energy. Most of our present energy needs come mainly from the fossil fuels (coal, petroleum
etc.) and hydel sources, which are relatively cheaper. These are useful for mass generation of
power.
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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

The ever increasing demand in energy is leading to depletion of the fossil fuels. Hydel
source cannot be used always since it is not available everywhere and also due to variations in
the hydrological cycle. Moreover, the cost of generation is also high due to high initial
investments and transmission problems. In view of the above, other sources of energy which are
inexhaustible in nature are being sought after.

Non-conventional energy sources

The alternate energy sources that are being harnessed are, solar energy, wind energy, tidal
energy, ocean thermal energy, geothermal energy, bio energy, fuel cells, solid wastes, hydrogen
energy etc. These inexhaustible sources of energy are called non-conventional energy sources.
These sources of energy which provide energy is in dilute form. These are useful for generating
power in lesser magnitude. The renewable sources of energy are defined as the energy sources
which are continuously produced in nature and are essentially inexhaustible or non-depletable.
These energy sources replenish themselves naturally in a relatively short time and therefore will
always be available.
E.g. of renewable energy sources: direct solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, hydel
energy, ocean thermal energy, bio energy, geothermal energy, peat, fuel wood, fuel cells, solid
wastes, hydrogen energy etc.
Of the above renewable energy sources, geothermal energy, peat and fuel wood must be
used at a rate less than their renewal rate in the nature, to allow them to build up again in nature.

The non-renewable energy sources are defined as the energy sources which have been
accumulated over the ages and not quickly replenish able when they are exhausted. E.g. Fossil
fuels (coal, petroleum and petroleum products), nuclear fuels and heat traps

Non-renewable sources of energy are those which occur once in nature and on usage
they practically cease to form under new geological conditions. They are also called as
exhaustible or depletable sources of energy. Fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are non-renewable
sources of energy.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Difference between Conventional and non- conventional sources of energy:

Conventional sources of energy Non- conventional sources of energy
These are widely used and economical These are rarely used and initial cost is high
Most of them are exhaustible Most of them are in-exhaustible
Most of them are pollute the environment Most of them are environment friendly
They are reliable (continuous supply of energy They are not reliable (continuous supply of
is possible) energy is not possible)
Energy transmission cost is high Energy transmission cost is low
Example: Fossil fuels, Hydel energy Example: solar, wind, tidal etc.

Difference between Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy:

Renewable sources of energy Non- Renewable sources of energy
These are in-exhaustible These are exhaustible
Freely available and environment friendly Not freely available & hazardous to
environment
Initial cost is high but maintenance cost is low Initial cost is low but maintenance cost is
high
Energy concentration varies from region to Energy concentration almost same in all
region region
Example: solar, hydel, wind, tidal etc. Example: Fossil fuels, nuclear fuels.

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Hydro-Energy:

Figure 1.1
Hydroelectric power (often called hydropower) is considered a renewable energy source.
A renewable energy source is one that is not depleted (used up) in the production of energy.
Through hydropower, the energy in falling water is converted into electricity without ―using up‖
the water.
An impoundment is simply a dam that holds water in a reservoir. The water is released
when needed through a penstock, to drive the turbine (remember turbines are just advanced
waterwheels). The flowing water causes the turbine to rotate, converting the water‘s kinetic
energy into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy produced by the turbine is converted
into electric energy using a turbine generator.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Wind energy:

Figure 1.2
Winds arise primarily from temperature difference of the earth‘s surface resulting from
unequal exposure to (or absorption of) solar radiation. Wind possesses kinetic energy. The
kinetic energy of wind can be converted into mechanical energy that can be utilized to perform
useful work or to generate electricity. Wind energy conversion devices are commonly known as
wind turbines. The wind turbine consists of a number of vanes or blades radiating from a hub or
central axis. When the wind blows against the vanes of a wind turbine, rotational motion is
caused in the wind turbine. Thus, the kinetic energy of wind is converted into mechanical work.
This mechanical work can be used directly to run a machine or to run a generator to produce
electricity. Wind energy can be utilized in places wind velocity is considerably high. An ideal
wind speed that can be utilized to extract energy lies between a speed 10 km/hr to 50 km/hr.

The utilization of wind energy for electric power generation is illustrated in figure 1.2.
The set up consists of a wind turbine keyed to the turbine shaft. The rotational motion of the
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wind turbine caused due to wind blow is transmitted to the generator through a gear box. A step
up transmission is usually required to match the relatively slow speed of the turbine to the higher
speed of an electric generator. The combination of wind turbine and generator is usually referred
to as an aerogenerator. The electrical energy so generated is obtained through the leads. The set
up (usually called tower) consists of wind speed and direction indicator, with the aid of which
the tower can be turned to the direction of wind blow.

Solar Energy:
Solar energy refers to the energy produced and radiated by the sun, i.e. sun‘s energy
which reaches the earth. Solar energy can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of
energy, such as heat and electricity which can be utilized by man. The heat energy contained in
the rays of the sun is absorbed by a black surface. This heat may then be used in various ways,
which may be divided broadly into two classes as
(a) Direct thermal applications: Helio-electrical and Helio-thermal process
(b) Indirect thermal applications: Biomass energy (Helio-chemical), wind energy, tidal
energy, ocean thermal energy etc.
Helio-electrical Process:

Figure 1.3

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Conversion of solar energy into electrical energy can be achieved by the photovoltaic effect
caused by the solar radiations. Photo-voltaic effect can be observed in variety of materials but
best performance is given by semiconductors (like silicon).

Since silicon is a tetravalent material has four valence electrons. After doping with
pentavalent material (like arsenic, phosphorous) it forms N-type semiconductor and the same
with trivalent material (like boron) it forms P-type semiconductor. When P-N junction of
semiconductor is exposed to sunlight, a voltage around 0.5 volts is built up around the junction
and current depends on the exposed area of cell. By applying external load, current is made to
flow through the conductor, it will continue as long as the free electrons and holes are formed
due to solar radiation.

Helio-Thermal Process:
The heating property of solar radiation is used in the devices to meet the thermal energy
needs. It is necessary to collect and concentrate the solar radiation in an efficient manner to
arrive a reasonably high-temperature heat source. The collectors gather the sun‘s energy and
direct it onto receivers that contain the working fluid.

Basically two types of collectors are used and they are flat plate collectors and
concentrating collectors.

Figure 1.4
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In flat plate collectors the incident solar radiation is absorbed by the collectors surface
itself, which are usually coated with black paint (usually electroplated), covered with transparent
glass cover on top and insulated all around to prevent the heat loss from the collector surface.
The black collector surface gets heated up and then in turn transfers the heat to the fluid passing
through the tubes which are either welded or soldered or are integral part of the collector plate.
Flat plate collectors are usually sloped and oriented in one particular direction and are capable of
collecting both diffuse and beam radiation. Since there are no moving parts in it, the repair and
maintenance cost is also nil or negligible. A maximum of 100°C can be easily achieved using flat
plate collectors and are more popularly used in solar water heating applications and solar air
heaters as they are relatively cheaper as compared to the cost of concentrating collectors.

In concentrating collectors the incident solar radiation falls on a large curved surface
from where it is reflected and focused on to focal point or line depending upon the type of the
geometrical construction of the concentrating collector.

Helio-chemical Process:
The most important chemical reaction on the earth is the reaction of sunlight and green
plants. Radiant energy of the sun is absorbed by the green pigment chlorophyll in the plant and is
stored within the plant in the form of chemical bond energy.

The visible light having wavelength below 700A° is absorbed by the green chlorophyll
which becomes activated and passes its energy on to water molecules. A hydrogen atom is
released and reacts with the carbon dioxide molecules, to produce H2CO and oxygen. H2CO is
the basic molecule forming carbohydrate. The oxygen librated is from H 2O molecule and not
from CO2. This process is called as carbon fixation or carbon assimilation.

The process of photosynthesis has two main steps:

(i) Splitting of H2O molecules into H2 and O2 under the influence of chlorophyll and
sunlight. This phase of reaction is called the light-reaction. In this reaction, light
absorbed by chlorophyll causes photolysis of water. O 2 escapes and H2 is transformed
into some unknown compounds. The solar energy is converted into potential chemical
energy.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

(ii) In the second step, hydrogen is transferred from this unknown compound to CO 2 to
form starch or sugar. Formation of starch or sugar is dark reaction not requiring
sunlight.
However, photosynthesis concepts is less attractive as the average efficiency of solar
energy conversion in plants is about 1% and overall efficiency of the conversion of
sunlight to electricity would be about 0.3% compared to 18 to 21% for photo-voltaic
cells. Still worldwide photosynthetic activity can store more than 15times as much
energy as consumed by all nations of the world.

Nuclear energy:
Nuclear energy is the energy released during nuclear fission or fusion, especially when
used to generate electricity. Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear
energy. The most common type of nuclear fuel is fissile elements that can be made to undergo
nuclear fission chain reactions in a nuclear reactor. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U
and 239Pu.

Figure 1.5
The basic nuclear generating station energy cycle is shown in Figure. Fuel containing
fissile material (Uranium) is fed to the reactor where fission takes place. The energy liberated
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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

appears in the form of heat, which is used to boil water in Heat exchanger or steam generator.
The steam produced from the boiling water spins a turbine-generator set, where the heat is
converted first to kinetic energy and then it will converts to mechanical energy in the turbine and
to electricity by the generator.
FOSSIL FUELS:
Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and reacting with
oxygen or air, produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as fuel must necessarily contain one
or several of the combustible elements: carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In the process of
combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy.

1. Solid Fuels:
Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories:
I. Natural fuels: wood, coal, etc.
II. Manufactured fuels: charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc.

Wood:
The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the oldest type of fuel
which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself. Charcoal is an artificial
fuel obtained from wood.
Coal:
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock
strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams.. The major chemical elements in coal are:
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
There are two types of coals: i) Bituminous coal ii) Anthracite coal.
Charcoal:
Charcoal is a produce derived from destructive distillation of wood, being left in the shape of
solid residue. Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear flame, producing no smoke and developing
heat of about 6050 cal/kg.
Coke:
It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in the shape of solid residue. Coke
can be classified into two categories: soft coke and hard coke. Soft coke is obtained as the solid
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residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of 600-650oC. It
contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns without smoke. It is extensively used as domestic fuel.
Hard coke is obtained as solid residue from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature
range of 1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for metallurgical process.

Advantages of solid fuels:

(a) They are easy to transport.
(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
(c) Their cost of production is low.
(d) They possess moderate ignition temperature.

Disadvantages of solid fuels:

(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(d) Their cost of handling is high.
2. Liquid fuels:
Liquid fuels include Gasoline, Diesel oil, Kerosene, Heavy oil, Naptha, Lubricating oils,
etc. These are obtained mostly by fractional distillation of crude petroleum or liquefaction of
coal.

Gasoline or Petrol:
The straight run gasoline is obtained either from distillation of crude petroleum or by synthesis.
It contains some undesirable unsaturated straight chain hydrocarbons and sulphur compounds. It
has boiling range of 40-120oC.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Diesel Fuel:
The diesel fuel or gas oil is obtained between 250-320oC during the fractional distillation of
crude petroleum. This oil generally contains 85% C. 12% H. Its calorific value is about11000
kcal/kg.
The suitability of a diesel fuel is determined by its cetane value. Diesel fuels consist of longer
hydrocarbons and have low values of ash, sediment, water and sulphalt contents.

Kerosene Oil:
Kerosene oil is obtained between 180-250oC during fractional distillation of crude petroleum. It
is used as an illuminant, jet engine fuel, tractor fuel, and for preparing laboratory gas. With the
development of jet engine, kerosene has become a material of far greater importance than it is
used to be. When kerosene is used in domestic appliances, it is always vaporized before
combustion. By using a fair excess of air it burns with a smokeless blue flame.

Advantages of liquid fuels:

a. They possess higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
b. They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
c. They are easy to transport through pipes.
d. They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
e. They are clean in use and economic to handle.
f. They require less excess air for complete combustion.
g. They require less furnace space for combustion.

Disadvantages of liquid fuels:

a. The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
b. Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
c. There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and volatile
liquid fuels.
d. For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying apparatus are
required.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

3. Gaseous fuels:
Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels.

Natural Gas:
Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained from wells dug in the
oil-bearing regions. The approximate composition of natural gas is :
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%

Producer Gas:
Producer gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases carbon monoxide and hydrogen
associated with non-combustible gases N2, CO2, etc. It is prepared by passing air mixed with
little steam (about 0.35 kg/kg of coal) over a red hot coal or coke bed maintained at about
1100oC in a special reactor called gas producer. It consists of a steel vessel about 3 m in
diameter and 4 m in height. The vessel is lined inside with fire bricks. It is provided with a cup
and cone feeder at the top and a side opening for the exit of producer gas. At the base it has an
inlet for passing air and steam. The producer at the base is also provided with an exit for the ash
formed.
Advantages of gaseous fuels:
a. They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby
eliminating manual labour in transportation.
b. They can be lighted at ease.
c. They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.
d. They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.
e. Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing
atmosphere, length flame, temperature, etc.
f. They do not require any special burner.
g. They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
Disadvantages gaseous fuels:
a. Very large storage tanks are needed.
b. They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.
Combustion and Combustion products:
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The term combustion refers to the exothermal oxidation of a fuel, by air or oxygen
occurring at a sufficiently rapid rate to produce a high temperature, usually with the appearance
of a flame.
As most of the fuels contain carbon or carbon and hydrogen, the combustion involves the
oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide and hydrogen to water. Sulphur, if present, is oxidised to
sulphur dioxide while the mineral matter forms the ash. Complex fuels like coal undergo thermal
decomposition during combustion to give simpler products which are then oxidised to carbon
dioxide, water etc.
e.g.: Coke on combustion gives carbon dioxide
Coal → Coke + Coal gas
C (coke) + O2 → CO2
Calorific Value of a Fuel:
The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the quantity of heat liberated by the complete
combustion of unit weight of the fuel in air or oxygen, with subsequent cooling of the products
of combustion to the initial temperature of the fuel.
It is expressed in kJ/kg
The calorific value of a fuel depends upon the nature of the fuel and the relative
proportions of the elements present, increasing with increasing amounts of hydrogen. Moisture if
present considerably reduces the calorific value of a fuel. The calorific value may be
theoretically calculated from the chemical composition of the fuel.

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BIO-FUELS
Biofuels are energy sources made from living things, or the waste that living things produce.
Supporters of biofuels argue that their use could significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions;
while burning the fuels produces carbon dioxide, growing the plants or biomass removes carbon
diozide from the atmosphere.

Ethanol:
Ethanol can be produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation
of sugar cane. Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be
mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up
to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of
gasoline; this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work.
An advantage of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free
gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine's compression
ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a
mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.

Advantages:
 Unlike petroleum, ethanol is a renewable resource
 Ethanol burns more cleanly in air than petroleum, producing less carbon (soot) and
carbon monoxide
 The use of ethanol as opposed to petroleum could reduce carbon dioxide emissions,
provided that a renewable energy resource was used to produce crops required to obtain
ethanol and to distil fermented ethanol

Disadvantages:
 Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion (per mole, per unit of volume, and per unit of
mass) that petroleum
 Large amounts of arable land are required to produce the crops required to obtain ethanol,
leading to problems such as soil erosion, deforestation, fertiliser run-off and salinity.

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 Major environmental problems would arise out of the disposal of waste fermentation
liquors.
 Typical current engines would require modification to use high concentrations of ethanol

Biodiesel:
It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid similar in composition to
fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters
(FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha,
mahua, mustard, flax, sunflower, palm oil, hemp, field pennycress, Pongamia pinnata and algae.
Pure biodiesel (B100) currently reduces emissions with up to 60% compared to diesel
Advantages of biodiesel fuel:
• An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way to utilize this
surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
• One of the main biodiesel fuel advantages is that it is less polluting than petroleum diesel.
• The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.
• Another of the advantages of biodiesel fuel is that it can also be blended with other energy
resources and oil.
• It can also be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps, which is another biodiesel fuel
advantage over other alternative fuels.
• The lubricating property of the biodiesel may lengthen the lifetime of engines.

Disadvantages of biodiesel fuel:

• At present, Biodiesel fuel is bout one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel
fuel.
• It requires energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops; plaus there is the energy of sowing,
fertilizing and harvesting.
• As Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, this dirt can then get collected in the fuel filter,
thus clogging it. So, filters have to be changed after the first several hours of biodiesel use.
• Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement, which is another of the biodiesel
fuel disadvantages.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

FORMATION OF STEAM:
The process of generation of steam can be represented through a temperature – enthalpy
diagram as shown in the figure 1.6.
Consider 1 kg of water at 00 C taken in a cylinder with a pressure P applied by a weight
‗w‘ on a free frictionless piston as shown in the figure 1.7. When it is heated keeping the
pressure constant, its volume increases with increase of temperature, until it reaches a point
(point B in the figure 1.6) when steam begins to form. This temperature (T s) at which steam
begins to form is called the saturation temperature. The saturation temperature is different for
different pressures and it increases with rise of pressure. The saturation temperature at
atmospheric pressure of 1 bar is 1000 C.
When steam begins to form at saturation temperature, some water particles may be
present in it (Fig1.7c). If the steam contains water particles in suspension, it is called wet steam.

Figure 1.6 Temperature – Enthalpy diagram

Figure 1.7
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On further heating beyond the point ‗B‘, the whole amount of water will be converted to
steam without any further rise of temperature. At the saturation temperature if the steam contains
no water particles, it is dry saturated steam.
If the dry saturated steam is further heated beyond point ‗C‘, at the same pressure the
temperature of steam rises above the saturation temperature. The steam which is at a temperature
greater than saturation temperature is called superheated steam.

Thus, during the formation there are three states of steam namely wet steam, dry steam
and superheated steam.

(i) Enthalpy of Water:

The total amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water which is initially at 0 0
C to its saturation temperature, at a given constant pressure is called the enthalpy of water. It is
also called sensible heat. It is denoted by ‗hf‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘.

(ii) Enthalpy of Evaporation:

The total amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of water which is initially at its saturation
temperature to dry saturated steam at the same saturation temperature and at the given constant
pressure is called enthalpy of evaporation. It is also called the latent heat of vaporization of
steam. It is denoted by ‗hfg‘ and is expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘.

(iii) Enthalpy of Steam:

The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of dry saturated steam from 1 kg of water
which is initially at 00 C and at a given constant pressure is called the enthalpy of steam. It is
denoted by ‗hg‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘. Enthalpy of steam is equal to the sum of enthalpy of
water (hf) and enthalpy of evaporation (hfg).
Thus it can be expressed as hg = hf + hfgkJ / kg

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(iv) Enthalpy of Wet Steam:

Enthalpy of wet steam is defined as the ―total amount heat of required to generate 1 kg of water
which is initially at 0˚C to 1 kg of wet steam at the specified dryness fraction‖. It is denoted by
‗hw‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘
Enthalpy of wet steam, hw = hf +x hfg kJ / kg
Where, x = dryness fraction of
steam

(v) Enthalpy of Superheated Steam:

The total amount of heat required to generate 1 kg of superheated stream at the stated
superheated temperature from 1 kg of water which is initially at 0 0 C and at a given constant
pressure is called the enthalpy of superheated steam. It is denoted by ‗hs‘ and expressed in ‗kJ
/ kg‘.
Enthalpy of superheated steam, hs = hg + hsup
Where, ‗hsup‘ is the heat supplied during superheating, i.e., the heat supplied to the dry saturated
steam to attain superheated temperature ‗tsup‘.
‗hsup‘ is also called the enthalpy of superheat. It can be determined by using the equation
hsup = Cp (tsup – ts) kJ / kg
The difference between the superheated temperature (tsup) and the saturation temperature (ts) is
called the degree of superheat.
(vi) Dryness fraction:
Dryness fraction of steam is defined as the ratio of mass of dry steam actually present in a wet
steam to the total mass of wet steam‖.

Dryness fraction, x Mass of dry steam in wet steam


Total mass of wet steam

md
x 
m w m d

Where, md — Mass of dry steam.

mw — Mass of suspended water molecules. (x should always be less than 1)

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(vii) Specific Volume:

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The volume of a unit mass of steam at a given pressure is called the specific volume of steam. It
is expressed in m3 / kg.
As steam exists in three states, the specific volume is considered for all the three states.

(viii) Specific volume of dry saturated steam:

The volume of a unit mass of dry saturated steam at a given pressure is called the specific volume
of a dry saturated steam. It is denoted by ‗vg‘ and expressed in ‗m3 / kg‘.

(ix) Specific volume of wet steam:

The volume of a unit mass of wet steam at a given pressure is called specific volume of wet
steam. It is denoted by ‗vw‘ and expressed in ‗m3 / kg‘.
Wet steam consists of saturated liquid in suspension. If in 1 kg of wet steam there is
‗x‘ kg of dry steam, then ‗(1 – x)‘ kg will be the saturated liquid. Therefore specific volume
of wet steam vw = xvg + (1–x) vf m3/ kg
Since ‗(1–x) vf‘ is too small quantity it is neglected.
Hence Specific volume of wet steam, vw = xvg m3 / kg

(x) Specific volume of the superheated steam: The volume of a unit mass of superheated steam
at a given pressure is called the specific volume of superheated steam.
Since superheated steam behaves like a perfect gas, its specific volume can be determined
by using Charles law as follows:
vg v sup

Ts T sup

T sup
V sup  Vg
Ts

where, vg —Specific volume of dry saturated steam at pressure ‗p‘

Ts —Saturation temperature, K
Tsup —Specified superheated temperature, K
vsup — Specific volume of superheated steam at pressure ‗p‘

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(xi) Internal energy of steam: When water vaporizes and gets converted into steam there is a
considerable increase in its volume. Thus some amount of external work is done during
vaporization. This external work can be expressed as product of pressure and volume of steam.
Thus the external work done, for the three states of steam are as follows:
pvg for dry saturated steam
pvw for wet steam
pvsup for superheated steam
Internal energy of steam is the actual energy stored in steam which can be utilized for
doing external work. It is equal to the difference between the total heat of steam and the external
work done during vaporization. It is denoted by ‗U‘ and expressed in ‗kJ / kg‘. Thus,
Internal energy of dry saturated steam : Ug = hg – pvg kJ / kg
Internal energy of wet steam : Uw = hw – pvw kJ / kg
Internal energy of superheated steam : Usup = hs – pvsup kJ / kg
Where ‗p‘ is in ‗kN / m2‘

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THERMODYNAMICS:

1. System boundary: The real or imaginary surface which surrounds the system is called
system boundary
2. Surrounding: The region outside the system is called the surrounding.

Fig: Thermodynamic system

3. Universe: System and Surrounding put together is known as Universe

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TYPES OF THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEMS:

a) Open system
b) Closed system
c) Isolated system
a) Open system: The open system is one in which both mass and energy (heat/work) cross the
boundary of the system.

Examples of open system: Water Pump, scooter engine

b) Closed system: The closed system is one in which only energy (heat/work) crosses the
boundary of the system. It has fixed mass

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Example of closed system: Car battery, Tea kettle, Water in a tank

c) Isolated system: The isolated system is one in which neither energy(heat/work) nor mass
crosses the boundary of the system. This system does not interact with the surrounding.
Therefore it has fixed mass and energy.
 No such system physically exists. Universe is the only example, which is perfectly isolated
system

NOTE:

Open system Closed system Isolated system

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THERMODYNAMIC STATE: The condition of a system at a particular moment is called its

state.

Fig: A system at two different states

THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES: The properties describing the state of a system are

called thermodynamic properties. These are pressure (P) , Volume (V) , temperature (T) etc

Types of Thermodynamic properties

Thermodynamic properties are generally divided into two types based on their dependence on
mass

Intensive properties: A thermodynamic property which is independent of mass is called

intensive property. For e.g. Temperature, Pressure etc.

For example if we take one liter of hot water at 50 degree Celsius, then at each and every point
of that one liter water temperature will be same. It does not depends on whether the water is one
liter or ten liters.

Extensive properties: A thermodynamic property which is dependent on mass is called an

extensive property. For e.g. volume, energy, entropy etc.

For example if we take water, then its volume which is a property depends on mass, for half kg
of mass volume will be different and for one kg it would be different.
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Specific property= Extensive property/mass.

Example:

 Specific volume (v) = Volume(V)/mass(m)

 Specific enthalpy (h) = Enthalpy(H)/mass(m)
 Specific entropy (s) = Entropy(S)/mass(m)

PROCESS AND CYCLE: When a system undergoes changes from one equilibrium state to
another is called a process. A process has a start and end point.

Fig: Process and path

From the above fig it clears that STATE1:P1,V1,STATE 2:P2,V2,PROCESS :1- 2

Types of Process:

a. Isobaric process or Constant pressure process

b. Isochoric process or Constant volume process
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c. Isothermal process or Constant temperature process

d. Adiabatic process
e. Quasi-static process
THERMODYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, it should satisfy following three
equilibrium

a. Mechanical equilibrium

b. Chemical equilibrium

c. Thermal equilibrium

a. Mechanical equilibrium: A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium when there are

no unbalanced forces within the system and also between the system and the surrounding,
the system is said to be under mechanical equilibrium
b. Thermal Equilibrium: A system is said to be in thermal equilibrium when there is no
temperature difference within the system and also between system and surroundings.

Fig: A closed system reaching thermalequilibrium.

c. Chemical Equilibrium: A system is said to be in chemical equilibrium when there is no

Chemical reaction within the system

When all the conditions of Mechanical, Chemical and Thermal equilibrium are satisfied, the
system is said to be in Thermodynamic equilibrium
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LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS:

1. ZEROTHLAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with third system, then they are also in equilibrium with each other. Thermal
equilibrium means
 Let us consider we have system A, system B and System C as shown in following figure.

Fig: Zeroth law of thermodynamics

Let temperature of system A is Ta,

Temperature of system B is Tb

Temperature of system C is Tc.

If Ta = Tc and Tb = Tc

If system A is in thermal equilibrium with system C and system B is also in thermal equilibrium
with system C. Then according to Zeroth law of thermodynamics, system A and system B will
also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.

That is , Ta = Tb

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2. FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

First law of thermodynamics for cyclic process

 First law of thermodynamics states that, when a closed system executes a cyclic process then
the cyclic integral of the heat is equal to the cyclic integral of the work

Mathematically, the first law of thermodynamics is stated as

 ∮dQ =∮dW
 ∮dQ- ∮dW = 0

Extension of First law of thermodynamics for Non cyclic process:

When a closed system undergoes a non-cyclic process, the difference between the net heat
transfer and the net work transfer is equal to the change in the energy of the system

✿Q-✿W=dE

✿Q=✿W+dE

OR

Q=W +Δ U

Where E = KE + PE +U

Total energy content=E= Internal Energy(U) + Kinetic energy + Potential energy

In most of the situations the changes in KE and PE are very small, Thus KE and PE changes can
be neglected.

Therefore Δ E =ΔU

Δ E = Q-W becomes

ΔU = Q-W

Q=W +Δ U

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For e.g. of 10 J of heat supplied to a system out of which 5 J used for doing work work and the
remaining 5 J will be stored in the system in the form of energy.

TOTAL ENERGY CONTENT OF A CLOSED SYSTEM

 ΔE= Total energy=Q–W

 Q=ΔE+W
 ‗W‘ amount of work is done by the system
 ‗Q‘ amount of heat absorbed by system
 ΔE refers to the energy change of the system. The net energy transfer (Q – W) would be
stored in the system.

CONCEPT OF INTERNAL ENERGY:

Internal energy (U):

 Internal energy is the energy stored in a substance.

 Internal energy is the energy due electron spin and vibrations, molecular motion and
chemical bond.
 It is denoted by U
 From first law of thermodynamics we have
 Δ E = Q-W
 Q=W +Δ U
Where E = KE + PE +U

 KE= Kinetic energy

 PE= Potential energy
 U = Internal energy. Therefore,
 In most of the situations the changes in KE and PE are very small, Thus KE and PE changes
can be neglected.
Therefore Δ E =ΔU

Δ E = Q-W becomes
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ΔU = Q-W

 For e.g. of 10 J of heat supplied to a system out of which 5 J used for doing work work and
the remaining 5 J will be stored in the system in the form of internal energy.
CONCEPT OF ENTHALPY (H):

 Enthalpy, the sum of the internal energy(E) and the product of the pressure(P) and
volume(V) of a thermodynamic system. It is expressed in kJ/kg
 Enthalpy, denoted by the symbol 'H',
 The enthalpy of a thermodynamic system is given by
H=U+PV

Where

 H is the enthalpy of the system,

 U is the internal energy of the system,
 P is the pressure of the system,
 V is the volume of the system

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Heat Engine

 Heat engine is a device operating in a cycle, which converts heat into work continuously
 Ex: Internal combustion engine, Gas turbine
 The parts of heat engine are Source, Working substance and Sink
 Source: It is a reservoir of heat at high temperature. Heat engine absorbs the heat from the
source
 Sink: It is a reservoir of heat at low temperature. Heat engine rejects the heat to the sink
 Working substance may be steam or petrol

Fig: Heat engine

 Consider a heat engine

 Heat engine absorbs Q1 amount of heat from the source at T1 and converts the part of heat
received into mechanical work(W)
 The remaining part of the heat Q2 is rejected to the sink

Expression for the Efficiency of a Heat engine:

η =W/Q1

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 Where, W is the work done by the engine and Q1 is the heat absorbed from the source.

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

 According to first law net heat transfer=net work transfer

 i.e W=Q1
 η =100%
 So efficiency will be 100% but in actual, this is not possible because there will be some loss
of energy in the system. Hence for every engine, there is a limit for its efficiency.

Heat Pump

Fig: Heat Pump

 The heat pump is a device used to pump heat into the system.
 It is basically used for heating purpose(maintaining temperature higher than the surrounding)
 Heat pump keeps your home warm rather than just burning fuel in a fireplace or furnace is
that a heat pump supplies. It runs on electricity, so you can save substantially on fuel
consumption.
 Consider a heat pump as shown in the fig
 Heat pumps transfer heat from a low-temperature source to a high-temperature sink
 Heat Pump takes the mechanical work(W) like electric motor and transfer heat from sink to
source
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Efficiency of heat pump is known as Coefficient of Performance(CoP)

CoP=Q1/W

If W=0, CoP becomes infinity which is not possible

So some external work must be supplied to the heat pump

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: KELVIN PLANK’S STATEMENT:

 According to Kelvin Plank‘s Statement ―It is impossible to construct a heat engine

that operates in a cycle, whose sole purpose is to convert heat energy from a single thermal
reservoir into an equivalent amount of work”
 Thus according to this statement, there is no engine that can convert all the heat taken from
the source into work, without giving any heat into the sink.
 This means that for obtaining continuous work, a sink is necessary.
 In the heat engine, the working substance takes heat from the hot body, converts a part of it
into work and gives the rest to the cold body.

Fig a (Possible)

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Fig b( Impossible)

 Fig a shows heat engine that obeys the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law
 Fig b shows heat engine that violates the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law cannot
be built. The above heat engine had Thermal efficiency of 100% which is practically
impossible ( which cannot be built). This device is called PMM II

Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement:

 According to Clausius Statement‖ It is impossible to construct an heat pump that operates in

a cycle, to transfer heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature
without the assiatnce of external work‖
 According to this stamen it clears that It is not at all possible to transfer heat from a cold
body to a hot body without the expenditureiof work by an external energy source.

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Fig a (Possible)

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

Fig b(Impossible)

 Fig a shows heat engine that obeys Clausius statement of the second law
 Fig b shows heat engine that violates Clausius statement of the second law cannot be built.
The above heat which is practically impossible ( which cannot be built)

CONCEPT OF WORK AND HEAT:

Mechanics definition of work :

According to Mechanics, Work is defined as the product of force(F) and the distance moved(S)
in the direction of force

Mathematically, W = F ×d

Where:

W = work (J)

F = force (N)

d = displacement (m)

Thermodynamic definition of work:

 Work is said to be done by a system , if the sole effect external to the system can be reduced
to the raising of a weight.
 Work is said to be done by the system if the total effect outside the system is equivalent to
the raising of weight
 The weight may not actually be raised, but the effect external to the system would be
reduced to the raising of a weight
 The word ‗could be reduced to‘ indicates that it is not necessary that weights should actually
be raised in order to say that there is work interaction between the system and the
surroundings.
 The system just sufficient to have an effect which is equivalent to the raising of weight.

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Sign Convention:

 The work done by a system is considered as positive

 The work done on a system is considered negative

Example of Work:

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 Consider a system consist of storage battery and motor

 Battery supplies electrical energy to motor which runs fan(surroundings)
 This clearly shows that the system(battery) has interaction with surroundings
 This the system is doing work on the surroundings(fan)
 But according to mechanics, there is no work done by the system since there is no force
is acting through a distance

Fig: Thermodynamics definition of work

 Let the fan is replaced with a pulley and weight arrangement as shown in the fig
 According to thermodynamics definition , the work is said done by the system because the
motor turns the pulley which raises the weight
 Thus, the sole effect external to the system can be reduced to raising of a weight
 Hence, thermodynamic work is done by the system

Expression for Work/Displacement Work:

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 Consider a piston cylinder arrangement as given in the Figure 2.4.

 If the pressure of the fluid is greater than that of the surroundings, there will be an
unbalanced force on the face of the piston.
 Hence, the piston will move towards right.

Let: F= Force acting on the piston

dX= Distance moved by the piston under the action of gas pressure

Force acting on the piston = Pressure×Area

W K T Work done =Force ×distance

Work done = P×A×dx

We know that area x length = volume A.dx=dV

Work done = P×dV

Where dV - change in volume.

 This work is known as displacement work or pdV work corresponding to the elemental
displacement dx.
 To obtain the total work done in a process, this elemental work must be added from the initial
state to the final state. Mathematically,
 That is

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 The, area under the P V curve representing the work done in the process

CONCEPT OF HEAT:

Thermodynamic Definition of Heat:

 It is the energy transfer from one system to another system by virtue(reason) of temperature
difference
 It is represented by Q and it is expressed in joule(J) or kilo-joule(kJ 103J) MJ(106J)

Direction of Heat Transfer:

 Direction of heat transfer is from the high temperature to the lower temperature
 The driving force for heat transfer is temperature difference

Sign Convention:

 The symbol Q is used to represent heat transfer

 As a convention of sign, heat transferred to a system is considered as positive and heat
transferred from a system is considered as negative

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Relationship between Heat and Work

 Heat and work are related. Work can be completely converted into heat, but the reverse is not
true: heat energy cannot be wholly transformed into work energy.
 For a closed system, the change in internal energy (∆U) is related to heat (Q) and work (W)
as follows:ΔU=Q+W

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EXPRESSION FOR HEAT TRANSFER:

Fig: T-S Diagram

 Fig shows T-S diagram Entropy S is plotted along A axis and Temperature T is plotted along
Y axis
 Heat transferred from state 1 to state 2 is calculated as follows

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COMPARISON BETWEEN WORK AND HEAT:

Similarities:

 Both are path functions

 Both are boundary phenomenon i.e., both are observed at the boundaries of the system as
they cross them.
 Both represent transient phenomenon. The systems do not posses heat or work. These energy
interactions occur only when a system undergoes change of state
 A system possesses energy, but not work or heat.
 Bothe are not properties of systems

Dissimilarities:

 Heat is energy interaction due to temperature difference only. Work is by reasons other than
temperature difference.
 Heat is low grade energy whereas work is high grade energy.
 Heat transferred to a system is considered as positive and heat transferred from a system is
considered as negative
 The work done by a system is considered as positive. The work done on a system
is considered negative
 In a cyclic process, complete conversion of het to work is impossible but
complete conversion of work to heat is possible

Note: Heat is the energy associated with the random motion of particles, while work is the
energy of ordered motion in one direction

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CONCEPT OF ENTROPY:

 Entropy is defined as the measure of disorder or randomness in a system.

 In general, greater disorder means greater entropy
 Adding heat increases the entropy (and disorder) of the system
S (gases) > S (liquids) > S (solids)

Change in Entropy is defined as

ΔS = Q /T

Where

Q is the energy transferred as heat to or from the system during the process,

T is the temperature of the system in kelvins

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

PRINCIPLE OF INCREASE OF ENTROPY:

The entropy of the universe increases because energy never flows uphill spontaneously.

Explanation:

Energy always flows downhill, and this causes an increase of entropy.

Consider the total energy q that is transferred from a hot region at temperature T1 to a cold
region at temperature T2.

The total entropy of the universe is always increasing.

Note: In our solar system heat is generated everywhere including solar fusion and radiated heat
from planets. dQ is therefore always a positive number. This is the reason that in our known
universe, entropy s is always positive

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 Elements of Mechanical Engineering

THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

 The third law of thermodynamics states that ” The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute
zero temperature is exactly equal to zero.”
 The Third law can be expressed as:
 LimT→0, S = 0
 From the equation it clears that as the temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its
entropy becomes zero.

 That is The third law of thermodynamics implies that the entropy of any solid
compound or for crystalline substance is zero at absolute zero temperature

Third Law of Thermodynamics Examples

 Consider H2O as an example to understand the concept of the third law of thermodynamics.
 Water exists in three different states:
 Gaseous state
 Liquid state
 Solid state
In Gaseous state

 In gaseous state, randomness is very high and hence the entropy is also high.

In Liquid state

 As the gas cools, it becomes liquid

 In liquid state, the randomness is reduced.
 This is because the movement between the molecules is reduced.
 Hence entropy of the molecules is reduced.

In Solid state

 When the water cools further, it becomes solid ice

 If the solid water reached absolute zero, all molecular motion would stop completely. At this
point, the water would have no entropy (randomness) at all.
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 In this state the moment between molecules is almost zero.

 This is because the molecules are packed very tightly in the solid state and hence the
randomness is almost zero.

Fig: When ice melts, it becomes more disordered and less structured. The systematic
arrangement of molecules in a crystal structure is replaced by a more random and less orderly
movement of molecules without fixed locations or orientations. Its entropy increases because
heat transfer occurs into it. Entropy is a measure of disorder

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