 Roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝑥 = 𝑝 𝑎 𝑝+𝑞 𝑎+𝑏

−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐 If 𝑞
= 𝑏
then 𝑝−𝑞
= 𝑎−𝑏
2𝑎
𝑏
 Sum of roots 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − 𝑎
𝑐
 Product of roots 𝑥1 𝑥2=
𝑎

𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, … … . 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

here d = common difference
𝑛
Sum of n terms, 𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
𝑛(𝑛−1) 2
 (1 + 𝑥) 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 +
2 Note:
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 3
6
𝑥 +
𝑛(𝑛−1) 2
1. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 … … + 𝑛 =
 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑛 = 1 − 𝑛𝑥 + 2
𝑥 − 𝑛(𝑛+1)
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 3 2
𝑥 + 2. 1 + 2 + 32 + 42 + 52 +
2 2
6
 If 𝑥 ≪ 1 then (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + ⋯ . . + 𝑛2 =
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
6
𝑛𝑥 & (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 − 𝑛𝑥

 log mn = log m + log n a, ar, ar2, ar3, ……... here, r = common ratio
 log mn = n log m
𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
 log10 2 = 0.3010 Sum of n terms, Sn =
m 1−𝑟
 log n = log m − log n 𝑎
 log e 𝑚 = 2.303 log10 m Sum of ∞ terms, Sn = [ where |𝑟| < 1]
1−𝑟
 log10 3 = 0.4771

2 π radian = 360° ⇒ 1 rad = 57.3°

𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
cot 𝜃 = secθ = cosecθ = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
sinθ = √𝑎2 2 cosθ = √𝑎2 tanθ = 𝑏
+𝑏 +𝑏2
1 1 1
cosecθ = sin 𝜃 secθ = cos 𝜃 cotθ = tan 𝜃
sin 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1
2
1 + tan2 𝜃 = sec 2 𝜃 1 + cot 2 𝜃 = cosec 2 𝜃

Page | 1
sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B cos (A±B) = cosA cosB ∓ sinA sin B
tan A±tanB
tan(A ± B) = 1∓tan A tan B
sin2A = 2sinAcosA

cos2A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 1 − 2sin2 A = 2cos 2 A − 1

2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
tan2A = 1−tan2 𝐴

θ 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180° 270° 360°
(0) 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 (𝜋) 3𝜋 (2𝜋)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 2

sinθ 0 1 1 √3 1 √3 1 1 0 -1 0
2 √2 2 2 √2 2

cosθ 1 √3 1 1 0 1 1 √3 -1 0 1
− − −
2 √2 2 2 √2 2

tanθ 0 1 1 √3 ∞ −√3 −1 1 0 ∞ 0
−
√3 √3

sin (90° + θ) = cosθ sin (180° − θ) = sinθ sin (− θ) = −sinθ sin(90° − θ) = cos θ
cos (90° + θ) = −sinθ cos(180° − θ) = cos (− θ) = cosθ cos (90° − θ) = sinθ
tan (90° + θ) = −cotθ −cosθ tan (− θ) = −tanθ tan (90° − θ) = cotθ
tan(180° − θ) =
−tanθ
sin (180° + θ) = sin(270° − θ) = −cosθ sin(270° + θ) = −cosθ sin(360° − θ) =
−sinθ cos(270° − θ) = cos (270° + θ) = sinθ −sinθ
cos(180° + θ) = −sinθ tan(270° + θ) = −cotθ cos (360° − θ) =
−cosθ tan (270° − θ) = cotθ cosθ
tan (180° + θ) = tanθ tan(360° − θ) =
−tanθ

sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶

= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Page | 2
 𝑑𝑦
 y = k(constant) ⇒ = 0
𝑑𝑥
ⅆ𝑢 ⅆ𝜈
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑣 −𝑢
 y= 𝑣
⇒ 𝑑𝑥
= ⅆ𝑥
𝑣2
ⅆ𝑥

xn+1
 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = n+1
+ C, n ≠ 1
1
𝑏2 +𝑐 2 −𝑎2 𝑐 2 +𝑎 2 −𝑏2  ∫ x
ⅆx = ℓnx + C
cos 𝐴 = , cos 𝐵 = , cos 𝐶 =
2𝑏𝑐 2𝑐𝑎  ∫ sinxⅆx = − cos x + C
𝑎 2 +𝑏2 +𝑐 2
2𝑎𝑏
 ∫ cosxⅆx = sin x + C
1
 ∫ eαx+β ⅆx = α eαx+β + C
(αx+β)n+1
 ∫ (αx + β)n ⅆx = +C
α(n+1)

sin θ ≈ θ, cos θ ≈ 1, tan θ ≈

θ, sin θ ≈ tanθ

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
 For maximum value = 0 & =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
−𝑣𝑒
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑛 → = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1  For minimum value = 0 & =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1 +𝑣𝑒
 𝑦 = ℓ𝑛𝑥 → =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥+𝛽 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑥+𝛽 𝑥
∫𝑥12 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) then < 𝑦 > = 𝑦̅ = =
 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜈 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫𝑥 :𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑f(g(x)) 𝑑g(x) 𝑥
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑g(x) 𝑥 ∫𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑x
𝑥2 −𝑥1

 Area of square = (side)2 where 𝑟 = radius and 𝑙 = length

 Area of rectangle = length×breadth  Area of whole surface of a cylinder =
1 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 𝑙)
 Area of triangle = 2 × base × height
1 where 𝑙 = length
 Area of trapezoid = 2 × (distance  Area of ellipse = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
between parallel sides) × (sum of (a & b are semi major and semi minor
parallel sides) axis respectively)
 Area enclosed by a circle = 𝜋𝑟 2 (r  Surface area of cube = 6(side)²
= radius)  Total surface area of a cone = 𝜋𝑟 2 +
 Surface area of a sphere = 4𝜋𝑟 2 (r 𝜋𝑟𝑙
= radius) where 𝜋𝑟𝑙 = 𝜋𝑟 √𝑟 2 + ℎ2 = lateral
 Area of a parallelogram = base×height area
 Area of a curved surface of a cylinder
= 2𝜋𝑟𝑙

Page | 3
  To convert an
angle from degree to
radian, we have to multiply
𝜋
FORMULAE FOR it by 180° and to convert an
DETERMINATION OF VOLUME
angle from radian to
degree, we have to multiply
180°
it by 𝜋 .
 By help of differentiation, if 𝑦 is given,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
we can find 𝑑𝑥 and by help of integration, if 𝑑𝑥 is
given, we can find y.
 The maximum and minimum values of
 Volume of a rectangular slab
function A cosθ + B sinθ are √𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 and
= length × breadth× height −√𝐴2 + 𝐵 2 respectively.
= 𝑎𝑏𝑡  (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 2𝑎𝑏
 (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏
 Volume of a cube = (side)3
 (𝑎 + 𝑏) (𝑎 – 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
 Volume of a sphere = πr3
4  (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏)
3
 (𝑎 − 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 − 3𝑎𝑏 (𝑎 − 𝑏)
(𝑟 = radius)  If sum of two real numbers is constant
 Volume of cylinder = πr2l then product of these numbers will be maximum
only when both numbers are equal.
(𝑟 = radius and l = length) If 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝐶 then 𝑥𝑦 will be maximum for 𝑥 =
𝐶
 Volume of a cone =
1
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ 𝑦 =
3 2

(𝑟 = radius and ℎ = height)

Page | 4
A physical quantity which requires magnitude
and a particular direction, when it is expressed.

𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 − 𝐵
⃗ ⇒ 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + (−𝐵 ⃗)
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵cos𝜃
𝐵 sin 𝜃
tan 𝑎 =
𝐴 − 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗ 𝜃
If 𝐴 = 𝐵 then R = 2A sin
2
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵cos𝜃
𝐵 sin 𝜃
tan 𝑎 =
𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
If 𝐴 = 𝐵 then R = 2A cos & 𝛼 =
2 2
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 for 𝜃 = 0°
If some vectors are represented by sides of a
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 for 𝜃 = 180°
polygon in same order, then their resultant
vector is represented by the closing side of
polygon in the opposite order.

If two vectors are represented by two adjacent

sides of a parallelogram which are directed
away from their common point then their sum
(i.e. resultant vector) is given by the diagonal of
the parallelogram passing away through that
common point. 𝑅⃗ = 𝐴 + 𝐵
⃗ +𝐶 +𝐷
⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐴𝐷
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑅
⃗⃗⃗ or
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵cos𝜃 Angle made with x - axis
𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝐴 sin 𝜃 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑥
tan 𝑎 = 𝐴+𝐵 cos 𝜃 and tan 𝛽 = 𝐵+𝐴 cos 𝜃 Cos 𝛼 = = =𝑙
𝐴
√𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧
Angle made with y - axis
𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑦
cos 𝛽 = = =𝑚
𝐴 2 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴2
√𝐴𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

Angle made with z - axis

Page | 5
 𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑧 ⃗A ∙ ⃗B
cos 𝛾 = = =𝑛 cos θ =
𝐴 AB
√𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 are called direction cosines =
𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = cos2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛽 + √A2x + A2y + A2z √Bx2 + By2 + Bz2
cos 2 𝛾 =  î. î = 1, ĵ. ĵ = 1, k̂. k̂ = 1, î. ĵ = 0, î. k̂ =
𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 0, ĵ. k̂ = 0
2 =1
 Component of vector ⃗b along vector
(√𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 )
a⃗, ⃗b∥ = (b ⃗ . â)â
or sin2 𝛼 + sin2 𝛽 + sin2 𝛾 = 2

 Component of ⃗b perpendicular to
𝑏⃗⊥ = 𝑏⃗∥ = 𝑏⃗ − (𝑏⃗ ∙ 𝑎̂)𝑎̂

𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ = 𝑟(cos 𝜃𝑖̂ + sin 𝜃𝑗̂)

EXAMPLES:
Construct a vector of magnitude 6 units making
 ⃗A × ⃗B = ABsinθ n̂ where is a vector
an angle of 60° with x – axis.
1 √3 ̂ perpendicular to ⃗A & ⃗B or their plane
Sol. 𝑟 = 𝑟(cos 60𝑖̂ + sin 60𝑗̂) = 6 ( 𝑖̂ + 2
𝑗) 2 and its direction given by right hand
= 3 𝑖̂ + 3√3 𝑗̂ thumb rule .
Construct an unit vector making an angle of
135° with x – axis.
1
Sol. 𝑟 = 1(cos135° 𝑖̂ + sin 135° 𝑗̂) = 2 (−𝑖̂ +
√
̂
𝑗)

î ĵ k̂
 ⃗A × ⃗B = |Ax Ay Az |
Bx By Bz
 ⃗A. ⃗B = ABcosθ ⇒ Angle between two
vectors = î(Ay Bz − Az By ) − ĵ(Ax Bz − Bx Az )
⃗A ∙ ⃗B + k̂(Ax By − Bx Ay )
θ = cos−1 ( )  ⃗A × ⃗B = −B ⃗ × ⃗A
AB
 If ⃗A = Ax î + Ay ĵ + Az K
̂ & ⃗B = Bx î +  (A ⃗ ×B ⃗ = (A
⃗ ). A ⃗ ×B ⃗ ). B
⃗ =0
 ⃗ , ĵ × ĵ = 0
î × î = 0 ⃗ , k̂ × k̂ = 0
⃗
By ĵ + Bz k̂ then ⃗A. ⃗B = Ax Bx +
 ̂ ̂
î × ĵ = k; ĵ × k = î,
Ay By + Az Bz and angle between
k̂ × î = ĵ; ĵ × î = −k ̂
𝐴&𝐵 ⃗ given by
k̂ × ĵ = −î, î × k̂ = −ĵ

Page | 6
 sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c

F1 F2 F3
= =
sin θ1 sin θ2 sin θ3
Area of triangle
d ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
 ⃗ . ⃗b) = dA . B
(A ⃗ . dB
⃗ +A
dt dt dt ⃗⃗ ×B
|A ⃗⃗ | 1
d ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ Area = = AB sin θ
 ⃗ × ⃗B) = dA × ⃗B + ⃗A × dB
(A 2 2
dt dt dt

Area of parallelogram
⃗ ×B
Area = |A ⃗ | = ABsinθ

r = r2 − r1 = (x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂) − (x1 î + y1 ĵ +

z1 k̂) = (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂ For parallel vectors
⃗A × ⃗B = ⃗0
Magnitude: r =
|r|√(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 For perpendicular vectors
⃗A. ⃗B = 0

For coplanar vectors

⃗ . (B
A ⃗)=0
⃗ ×C

If A, B, C points are collinear

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = λBC
AB ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

EXAMPLES OF DOT PRODUCTS

 Work, W = ⃗F. ⃗ⅆ = Fⅆcosθ where F → force, 𝑑 → displacement

 Power, P = F ⃗ .v
⃗ = Fvcosθ where F → force, v → velocity
 ⃗ ⃗
Electric flux, ϕE = E. A = EAcosθ where E → electric field, A → Area
 Magnetic flux, ϕB = ⃗B. ⃗A = BAcosθwhere B → magnetic field, A →
Area
 Potential energy of dipole in where p → dipole moment, uniform
filed, U = −p ⃗ , where E → Electric filed
⃗ .E

Page | 7
 Examples of cross products
 Torque τ⃗ = r × ⃗F where r → position, F → force
 Angular momentum ⃗L = r × p ⃗ where r → position vector, p →
linear momentum
 Linear velocity v
⃗ =ω⃗⃗ × r where r → position vector 𝜔 →
angular velocity
 Torque on dipole placed in electric field τ⃗ = p ⃗
⃗ ×E
where p → dipole moment, E → electric flied

Page | 8
 e.g. Physical Quantity = Numerical Value ×
Unit
System of Units
MKS CGS FPS MKSQ MKSA
The quantities which do not depend upon other (i) Length Length Length
Length Length
quantities for their complete definition are (m) (cm) (ft) (m) (m)
known as fundamental or base quantities. (ii) Mass Mass Mass Mass Mass
(kg) (g) (pound)
(kg) (kg)
e.g.: length, mass, time, etc
(iii) Times Times TimesTimes Times
(s) (s) (s) (s) (s)
(iv) - - -
Change Current
(Q) (A)
Fundamental Quantities in S.I System and
The quantities which can be expressed in terms their units
of the fundamental quantities are known as
S.N. Physical Qty. Name of unit Symbol
derived quantities.
1 Mass kilogram kg
e.g. Speed (=distance/time), volume 2 Length Meter m
acceleration, force, pressure, etc. 3 Time second s
4 Temperature Kelvin K
5 Luminous candela Cd
intensity
6 Electric current ampere A
The chosen reference standard of measurement 7 Amount of Mole Mol
in multiples of which, a physical quantity is substance
expressed is called the unit of that quantity.

SI Units
Base Quantity
Name Symbol Definition

Length meter m The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in
vacuum during a time interval of 1/(299, 792, 458) of a
second (1983)
Mass kilogram kg The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international
prototype of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy
cylinder) kept at International Bureau of Weights and
Measures, at Sevres, near Paris, France. (1889)
Time second s The second is the duration of 9. 192, 631, 770 periods of
the radiation corresponding to the transition between the
two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom (1967)
Electric Current ampere A The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained

Page | 9
 in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of
negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart
in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a
force equal to 2 × 10−7 Newton per metre of length.
(1948)
Thermodynamic kelvin K The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
Temperature temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)
Amount of mole mol The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which
Substance contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms
in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. (1971)
Luminous candela Cd The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given
Intensity direction, of source that emits monochromatic radiation
of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that has a radiant
intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian
(1979).
Note: On November 16, 2018 at the General Conference on Weights and Measure (GCWM) the 130
years old definition of kilogram was changed forever. It will now defined in terms of plank's constant.
It will adopted on 20 May, 2019 (World Metrology Day - 20 May). The new definition of kg involves
accurate weighing machine called "Kibble balance".

 Radian (rad) - for measurement of

 In Mechanics, the formula for a
plane angle
physical quantity depending on more
 Steradian (sr) - for measurement of
than three other physical quantities
solid angle
cannot be derived. It can only be
checked.
 This method can be used only if the
dependency is of multiplication type.
The formulae containing exponential,
trigonometrical and logarithmic
Relation which express physical quantities in functions can't be derived using this
terms of appropriate powers of fundamental method. Formulae containing more
quantities. than one term which are added or
1
subtracted like s = ut + 2 at 2 at also
can't be derived.
 The relation derived from this method
gives no information about the
 To check the dimensional correctness dimensionless constants.
of a given physical relation  If dimensions are given, physical
 To derive relationship between quantity may not be unique as many
different physical quantities physical quantities have the same
 To convert units of a physical quantity dimensions.
from one system to another  It given no information whether a
physical quantity is scalar or a vector.
𝑛1 𝑢1 − 𝑛2 𝑢2 ⇒ 𝑛2

𝑀1 𝑎 L1 b T1 c
= 𝑛1 ( ) ( ) ( )
𝑀2 L2 T2
where u = M a Lb T c

Page | 10
 The magnitudes of physical quantities vary over small to be expressed more compactly for
a wide range. The CGPM recommended certain powers of 10.
standard prefixes for magnitude too large or too

Power of 10 Prefix Symbol Power of 10 Prefix Symbol

1018 exa E 10−1 deci d
15 −2
10 peta p 10 centi c
12 −3 PREFIXES USED
10 tere T 10 milli m
9 −6
FOR DIFFERENT
10 giga T 10 micro 𝜇
POWERS OF 10
6 −9
10 kilo k 10 nano n
3 −12
10 kilp k 10 pico P
2 −15
10 hecto h 10 femto F
1 −18
10 deca da 10 atto A

Physical quantity Unite Physical quantity Unite

Angular acceleration Rad s −2 Frequency Hertz

Moment of inertia kg−m2 Resistance kg m2 A−2 s −3

Self inductance henry Surface tension Newton/m

UNITS OF Magnetic flux weber Universal gas constant Joule K −1 mol−1
IMPORTANT
PHYSICAL Pole strength A-m Dipole moment coulomb-meter
QUANTITIES Viscosity* pois Stefan constant watt m−2 K −4

Reactance ohm Permittivity of free space (ε0 ) coulomb2 /N − m2

Specific heat J/kg °C Permeability of free space (μ0 ) weber/A-m

Strength of magnetic field newton A−1 m−1 Planck’s constant Joule-sec

Astronomical distance Parsec Entropy J/K

*SI Unit of viscosity is decapoise.

Physical quantity Dimensions Physical quantity Dimensions
Momentum M1 L1 T1 Capacitance M −1 L−2 T 4 A2
Calorie M1 L2 T −2 Modulus of rigidity M1 L−1 T −2
Latent heat capacity M 0 L2 T −2 Magnetic permeability M1 L1 T −2 A−2
Self inductance M1 L2 T − A−2 Pressure M1 L−1 T −2
Coefficient of thermal conductivity M1 L1 T −3 K −1 Planck's constant M1 L2 T −1 DIMENSIONS OF
Power M1 L2 T −3 Solar constant M1 L0 T −3 IMPORTANT
Impulse M1 L1 T −1 Magnetic flux M1 L−2 T 0 A1 PHYSICAL
Hole mobility in a semi conductor M −1 L0 T 2 A1 Current density M 0 L−2 T 0 A1
QUANTITIES
Bulk modulus of elasticity M1 L−1 T −2 Young modulus M1 L−1 T −2
Potential energy M1 L2 T −2 Magnetic field intensity M 0 L−1 T 0 A1
Gravitational constant M −1 L3 T −2 Magnetic Induction M1 T −2 A1
Light year M 0 L1 T 0 Permittivity M −1 L−3 T 4 A2
Thermal resistance M −1 L−2 T 3 Electric Field M1 L1 T 3 A−1
Coefficient of viscosity M1 L−1 T −1 Resistance ML2 T −3 A−2

Page | 11
 Quantities Dimensions
S.N.
1. Strain, refractive index, relative density, angle, solid angle, phase, distance [M 0 L0 T 0 ]
gradient, relative permeability, relative permittivity, angle of contact, Reynolds
number, coefficient of friction, mechanical equivalent of heat, electric
susceptibility,
2. Mass or inertial mass [M1 L0 T 0 ]
3. Momentum and impulse. [M1 L1 T −1 ]
4. Thrust, force, weight, tension, energy gradient. [M1 L1 T −2 ]
SETS OF 5. Pressure, stress, Young's modulus, bulk modulus, shear modulus, modulus of [M1 L−1 T −2 ]
rigidity energy density.
QUANTITIES 6. Angular momentum and Planck's constant (h). [M1 L2 T −1 ]
HAVING SAME 7. Acceleration, g and gravitational field intensity. [M 0 L1 T −2 ]
DIMENSIONS 8. Surface tension, free surface energy (energy per unit area), force gradient, [M1 L0 T −2 ]
spring constant.
9. Latent heat capacity and gravitational potential. [M 0 L2 T −2 ]
10. Thermal capacity, Boltzmann constant, entropy. [ML1 T −2 K −1 ]
11. Work, torque, internal energy, potential energy, kinetic energy, moment of [M1 L2 T −2 ]
q2 V2
force, ( ) , (LI 2 ), (qV), (V 2 C), (I 2 Rt), t, (VIt), (PV), (RT), (mL), (mc ∆T)
c R
12. Frequency, angular frequency, angular velocity, velocity gradient, [M 0 L0 T −1 ]
R 1 1
radioactivity , ,
L RC √LC

13. ℓ 1/2 m 1/2 L [M 0 L0 T1 ]

( ) , ( ) , ( ) , (RC), (√LC), time
g k R
14. (VI), (I 2R ), (V 2 /R), Power [M L2 T −3 ]

Gravitational constant (G) 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 kg −2

Speed of light in vacuum (c) 3 × 108 ms−1
Permeability of vacuum (μ0 ) 4π × 10−7 Hm−1
Permittivity of vacuum (ε0 ) 8.85 × 10−12 Fm−1
Planck constant (h) 6.63 × 10−34 Js
Atomic mass unit (amu) 1.66 × 10^ − 27kg SOME
Energy equivalent of 1 amu 931.5MeV FUNDAMENTAL
Electron rest mass (me ) 9.1 × 10−31kg = 0.511MeV CONSTANTS
Avogadro constant (NA ) 6.02 × 10^23mol^ − 1
Faraday constant (F) 9.648 × 104 C mol−1
Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ) 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4
Wien constant (b) 2.89 × 10−3 mK
Rydberg constant (R ∞ ) 1.097 × 107 m−1
Triple point for water 273.16K(0.01°C)
Molar volume of ideal gas 22.4L = 22.4 × 10−3 m3 mol−1
(NTP)

 Trigonometric functions sinθ, cosθ, tanθ etc and their arrangements θ

are dimensionless.
dn y y
 Dimensions of differential coefficients [dxn ] = [xn]
 Dimensions of integrals [∫ yⅆx] = [yx]
 We can't add or subtract two physical quantities of different
dimensions.

Page | 12
  Independent quantities may be taken as fundamental quantities in a new system of units.

x = a + b then ∆x = ±(∆a + ∆b)

Error in Product and Division
A physical quantity X depend upon Y & Z as
For a number greater than 1 X = Y a Zb then maximum possible fractional
 All non-zero digits are significant. error in X.
 All zeros between two non-zero digits ∆X |a|∆Y ∆Z
are significant. Location of decimal = + |b|
X Y Z
does not matter.
 If the number is without decimal part, Error in Power of a Quantity
then the terminal or trailing zeros are am ∆x ∆a ∆b
not significant. x= m
then = ± [m ( ) + n ( )]
b x a b
 Trailing zeros in the decimal part are
significant. Least count
For a Number Less than 1 The smallest value of a physical quantity which
can be measured accurately with an instrument
Any zero to the right of a non-zero digit is is called the least count of the measuring
significant. All zeros between decimal point instrument.
and first non-zero digit are not significant.
Significant Figures
All accurately known digits in measurement
plus the first uncertain digit together form
significant figure. Least count = 1MSD − 1VSD (MSD → main
scale division, VSD → Vernier scale division)
Ex. 0.108 → 3SF, 40.000 → 5SF,
1.23 × 10−19 → 3SF, 0.0018 → 2SF

Power of 10 required to re-present a quantity Ex. A Vernier scale has 10 parts, which are
equal to 9 parts of main scale having each path
49 = 4.9 × 101 ≈ 101 ⇒ order of magnitude 9
= 1 equal to 1 mm then least count 1mm − 10 =
0.1 mm [∵ 9MSD = 10VSD]
51 = 5.1 × 101 ≈ 102 ⇒ order of magnitude
=2
0.051 = 5.1 × 102 ≈ 10−1 order of
magnitude = −1
pitch
Least count= total no of division
on circular scale

Error in Summation and Difference:

Page | 13
 If there is no object between the jaws (i.e. jaws
are in contact), the screw gauge should give
zero reading. But due to extra material on jaws,
even if there is no object, it gives some excess
reading. This excess reading is called Zero
error.
Negative Zero Error
Ex. The distance moved by spindle of a screw (3 division error) i.e., −0.003 cm
gauge for each turn of head is 1mm. The edge
of the humble is provided with an angular scale
carrying 100 equal divisions. The least count=
1mm
100
= 0.01mm

Positive Zero Error

(2 division error) i.e., +0.002 cm

Calculation of zero error for screw gauge:

Positive zero error = (No. of division of CS on
MS).LC
Negative zero error = (Total division on CS -
No. of division of CS on MS).LC
Calculation of zero error for Vernier
Callipers: Correct reading = (Reading) – (zero error)
Positive zero error = (No. of Division of VS
coincided with MS).LC
Negative zero error= (Total division in VS - No.
of division of VS coincided with MS).LC
To get correct reading take zero error with their
Correct reading with zero error sign.
Correct reading = (Reading) - (Zero error) Positive zero error = + (Numerical value of zero
error)
The zero error is always subtracted from the
reading to get the corrected value. Negative zero error = - (Numerical value of
zero error)

Page | 14
Total length of path (ACB) covered by the  Distance ≥ |displacement| and
particle, in definite time interval is called Average speed ≥ | average velocity|
distance. Displacement vector or displacement  If distance > | displacement |this
is the minimum distance (AB) and directed implies
from initial position to final position. a) at least at one point in path,
velocity is zero.
b) The body must have retarded
during the motion.
 Acceleration positive indicates velocity
increases and speed may increase or
From ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵 ∆𝑟 = 𝑟𝐵 − 𝑟𝐴 decrease.
 Speed increase if acceleration and
𝑟𝐵 = 𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂ and 𝑟𝐴 = 𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂ + velocity both are positive or negative
𝑧1 𝑘̂ (i.e. both have same sign)
dv dv
 In 1-D motion a = = v
∆𝑟 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥 − 1)𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − dt dx
𝑧1 )𝑘̂  Graphical integration in Motion
analysis
𝑣2 𝑡2
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
𝑑𝑡 𝑣1 𝑡1
𝑡2
= ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

Displacement
 Average velocity Time interval
=
∆r⃗
⃗ av =
v ∆t
Distance travelled
 Average speed Time interval
 For uniform motion ⇒ Change in velocity = Area between
Average speeⅆ = acceleration curve and time axis. from t1 to t 2
| average velocity | = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥2
| instantaneous velocity | 𝑣= ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
dr⃗ d
𝑑𝑡 𝑥1
 Velocity v
⃗ = dt = dt (xî + yĵ + 𝑡2
dx dy dz = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
xk̂) = dt
î + dt ĵ + dt k̂
= vx î + vy ĵ = 𝑡1
̂ 𝑡2
vz k
= ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡
 Average Acceleration 𝑡1
𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 ∆𝐯⃗
= 𝐚⃗𝐚𝐯 =
total time taken ∆𝐭
⃗
dv d
⇒ Change in position = displacement = area
 Acceleration a⃗ = dt
= dt
(vx î + between velocity curve and time axis, from
dvx dvy dvz t1 to t 2
vy ĵ + vz k̂) = dt
î + dt ĵ + dt
k̂ =
ax î + ay ĵ + az k̂

Page | 15
 dx
position time curve (v = dt
)
 Slope of velocity-time curve =
instantaneous acceleration (a =
dv Vdv
) or
dt ds
 v-t curve area gives displacement.
[∆x = ∫ vⅆt]
 a-t curve area gives change in velocity
[∆𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡]

 Instantaneous velocity is the slope of

Different Cases v= t graph s= t graph

1. Uniform motion

2. Uniformly accelerated motion with u = 0 at t=0

3. Uniformly accelerated with u ≠ 0 at t=0

4. Uniformly accelerated motion with u = 0 and

5. Uniformly retarded motion till velocity becomes

zero

6. Uniformly retarded then accelerated in opposite

direction

Page | 16
 1
⃗ rel t + ⃗arel t 2
srel = u
2
2
vrel = u2rel + 2a⃗rel ∙ srel
Relative velocity of Rain w.r.t. the Moving
Man:
 In vector form: v
⃗ =u
⃗ + a⃗t A man walking west with velocity 𝑣𝑚
⃗
v ⃗ t1 2
u represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 Let the rain be falling
t ∆r = r2 − r1 = s = (u⃗ + )t = a⃗t vertically downwards with velocity 𝑣𝑟 ,
2 2
1 represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
OB as shown in figure.
=v⃗ t 2 − a⃗t 2
2 The relative velocity of rain w.r.t. man v
⃗m =
⃗
a ⃗vr − v
⃗ m will be
v 2 = u2 + 2a⃗. s snth = u
⃗ + 2
(2n − 1)
represented by diagonal ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵 of rectangle
[Snth → ⅆisplacement in nth seconⅆ] OBDC.
 In scalar form (for one dimension
motion): ∴ vrm √vr2 + vm
2 + 2v v cos 90°
r m

v
v = u + at s = (u + 2) t = ut + = √vr2 + vm
2

1 2 vt1 2
at = at
2 2 If is the angle which v ⃗ rm makes with the
ua BD v
2 2
v = u + 2as snth = (2n − 1) vertical direction then tanθ = OB = vm ⇒ θ =
2 r
v
tan−1 ( vm )
r

Swimming into the River:

A man can swim with velocity v ⃗ , i.e. it is the
There is no meaning of motion without velocity of man w.r.t. still water. If water is also
reference or observer. If reference is not flowing with velocity v ⃗ R then velocity of man
mentioned then we take the ground as a relative to ground 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑅
reference of motion. Generally velocity or
displacement of the particle w.r.t. ground is  If the swimming is in the direction of
called actual velocity or actual displacement of flow of water or figure along the
the body. If we describe the motion of a particle downstream then vm = v + vR
w.r.t. an object which is also moving w.r.t.
ground then velocity of particle w.r.t. ground is
its actual velocity (𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑡 and velocity of particle
w.rt. moving object is its relative velocity (𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑙
and the velocity of moving object (w.r.t.
ground) is the reference velocity
(v
⃗ nef )then ⃗ rel = v
v ⃗ act − v
⃗ ref  If the swimming is in the direction
⃗ actual = vrefative + v
v ⃗ reference opposite to the flow of water or along
the upstream then vm = v − vR
If ⃗ then v
a⃗ref = 0 ⃗ rel = constant & srel =
(v
⃗ ref )t
If a⃗rel = constant then we can use equation of
motion in relative
⃗ rel = u
v ⃗ rel + a⃗rel t  If man is crossing the river as shown in
the figure i.e. v
⃗ and v⃗ R not collinear

Page | 17
 then use the vector algebra v
⃗m =v
⃗ + t1 & t 2 respectively then height of
⃗ R (assuming 𝐯 > 𝐯𝐑)
v point h = 1/2gt1 t 2
1
vii) Maximum height H − g(t1 + t 2 )2
8
viii) A body is thrown upward, downward &
horizontally with same speed takes
time t1 , t 2 , & t 3 respectively to reach
the ground then t 3 = √t1 t 2 &
height from where the particle was
1
thrown is H = 2 gt1 t 2

Horizontal Motion
If a body is thrown vertically up with a velocity
u in the uniform gravitational field (neglecting u cosθ = ux ; ax = 0; x = ux t = (u cosθ)t
air resistance) then
u2
i) Maximum height attained H =
2g
u
ii) Time of ascent = time of descent = g
2u
iii) Total time of flight g
iv) Velocity of fall at the point of
projection = u (downwards) Vertical Motion
v) Gallileo’s law of odd number: Foe a
freely falling body released from rest vy = uy − gt where uy = u sinθ;
ratio of successive distance covered in 1 1
equal time interval ‘t’ y = uy t − gt 2 = usinθt − gt 2
2 2
S1 : S2 : S3 … . . Sn = 1: 3: 5: … … .2n −
1 Net acceleration= a⃗ = ax î + ay ĵ = −gĵ
vi) At any point on its path the body will
At any instant:
have same speed for upward journey
and downward journey. If a body vx = ucosθ, vy = usinθ − gt
thrown upwards crosses a point in time

Page | 18
⃗ = vx î + vy ĵ = ux î(uy − gt)ĵ = u cosθî +
v
(u cos θ − gt)j ̂
If angle of velocit 𝑣 from horizontal is 𝛼, then
vy uy − gt sin θ − gt
tan α = = =u
vx ux u cos θ
gt
= tan θ −
u cos θ
 At highest point: vy = 0, v − x =
ucosθ
2u 2u sinθ 2u⊥ 2u sin(θ−α)
 Times of fight: T = g y = g  Time of flight: T = g⊥
=g cos α
u
 Horizontal range:  Maximum height: 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = g⊥ =
⊥
2u2 sin2(θ−α)
2u2 sin θ cos θ u2 sin 2θ
R = (u cos θ)T = = 2g cos α
g g  Range on inclined plane:
2ux uy
= 2u2 sin(θ − α) cos θ
g
R = OA =
2g cos α
It is same for θ and (90° − θ) and maxiuman
for θ = 45° u2
 Max. range: R max = at angle
g(1+sin α)
u2y 𝜋 𝛼
 Maximaum height: H = 2g = 𝜃= +
4 2
u2 sin2 θ 1
= gT 2
2g 8
H 1
 R
= 4
tan θ
 Equation of trajector
gx2 x
y = x tan θ − 2u2 cos2 θ x tanθ (1 − R)

2u⊥
 Time of flight: T = 2t H = =
a⊥
2u sin(θ+α)
g cos α
𝑢2
 Maximum height: 𝐻 = 2𝑎⊥ =
2h
 Time of flight T = √ g 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃+𝛼)
⊥

2𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼
2h
 Horizontal range R = uT = u√ g  Range on inclined plane:
2u2 cos θ sin(θ + α)
 Angle of velocity at any instant with R = OA =
horizontal g cos 2 α
𝑔𝑡
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑢

Page | 19
 u2 relative acceleration of one projectile
 Max. range: R max = g(1−sin α) at angle
π α
w.r.t. another projectile is zero.
θ=4−2  If a = f(x) then
v2 x2
 A positive ⅆv
a = v ⇒ ∫ vⅆv = ∫ aⅆx
acceleration can ⅆx v1 x1
be associated with
a "slowing down"
of the body
because the origin
and the positive
direction of
motion are a matter of choice.
 The x-t graph for a particle undergoing
rectilinear motion cannot be as shown v22 −v21
in figure because infinitesimal changes ⇒ = Shaded ares
2
in velocity are physically possible only
in infinitesimal time.

A body crosses two points at same height in

time t1 and t 2 the points are at distance x and y
 In oblique projection of a projectile, the from starting point then
speed gradually decreases up to the
highest point and then increases (a) x + y = R
because the tangential acceleration
(b) t1 + t 2 = T
opposes the motion until the particle
reaches the highest point, and then it (c) h = 1/2 gt1 t 2
favours the motion of the particle.
 In free fall, the initial velocity of a body (d) Average velocity from A to B is ucosθ
may not be zero.
 A body can have acceleration even if its
velocity is zero at an instant.
 Average velocity of a body may be
equal to its instantaneous velocity.
 The trajectory of an object moving
under constant acceleration can be Note: If a person can throw a ball to a
straight line or parabola. maximum distance 'x' then the
 The path of one projectile as seen from maximum height to which he can throw
another projectile is a straight line as the ball will be (x/2)

Page | 20
A push or pull that one object exerts on ⅆp
⃗ ⅆ ⅆv
⃗ ⅆm
⃗ =
F = (mv
⃗) = m +v⃗⃗
another. ⅆt ⅆt ⅆt ⅆt
Forces of nature (Linear momentum p
⃗ = mv
⃗)

There are four fundamental forces in nature For constant mass system ⃗F = ma⃗
 Gravitational force
 Electromagnetic force
 Strong nuclear force
 Weak force
Types of forces on macroscopic objects It is the product of the mass and velocity of a
body i.e., momentum⃗⃗⃗p = mv ⃗
(a) Field Forces or Range Forces:
 SI Unit : kg m s −1
These are the forces in which contact between  Dimensions : [M L T −1 ]
two objects is not necessary.
Ex: (i) Gravitational force between two bodies.
(ii) Electrostatic force between two charges.
(b) Contact Forces: Impulse = product of average force with time
Contact forces exist only as long as the objects For a finite interval of time from t1 anⅆ t 2
are touching each other. then the
Ex (i) Normal force (ii) Frictional force
(c) Attachment to Another Body:
Tension (T) is a string and spring force (F= 𝑘𝑥)
comes in this group

𝑡
⃗ ⅆt = Shaded area
Impulse =∫t 2 F
1
(or Galileo’s law of Inertia )
If constant force acts for an interval ∆t then :
Everybody continues in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless ⃗ ∆t
Impulse = F
compelled by an external unbalanced force to
change that state. Impulse –Momentum theorem

Inertia: Inertia is the property of the body due Impulse of a force is equal to the change of
to which body opposes the change of it's state. momentum ⃗ ∆t = ∆p
F
Inertia of a body is measured by mass of the
body
inertia ∝ mass
Whenever a particle A exerts a force on another
particle B, B simultaneously exerts a force on A

Page | 21
with the same magnitude in the opposite applied on one body , then the force with which
direction one body presses the other at the point of
contact is called force of contact. These two
bodies will move with same acceleration a,
(i) When the force F acts on the body with mass
𝑚1 as shown in figure (i) : F = ( 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑎
In equilibrium 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 (k is spring constant)

Fig (1): When the force F acts on mass m1

If the force exerted by m2 on m1 is f1 ( force
Note : Spring force is non impulsive in nature of contact ) then for body m1 : ( F − f1 ) = m1 a
Ex: If the lower spring is cut, find acceleration
of the blocks, immediately after cutting the
spring.

Fig, 1 (a): F.B.D representation of action and

reaction forces
For body m2 :
f1 = m2a⇒ action of m1 on m2 : f1 =
m2 F
m1 + m2
3mg
Sol Initial stretches xupper =
k
mg
and xlower = k

On cutting the lower spring, by virtue of non-

impulsive nature of spring the stretch in upper A single fixed pulley changes the direction of
spring remains same immediately after cutting force only and in general, assumed to be
the spring. Thus, massless and frictionless,

Case-I:

When two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are

kept on the frictionless surface and a force F is

Page | 22
Let m1 > m2 now for mass m1 , m1 g −
T = m1 a for mass m2 ,T− m2 g = m2 a
Acceleration = a=
( m1 − m2 ) net pulling force
( m + m )
𝑔=total mass to be pulled
1 2 The force on a body due to acceleration of non-
2m m inertial frame is called fictitious or apparent or
Tension= T = ( m +1 m2 ) 𝑔 =
1 2 pseudo force and is given by ⃗F = −m𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗0 , where
2×Product of masses
𝑎0 is acceleration of non-inertial frame with
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Sum of two masses
respect to an inertial frame and m is mass of the
Reaction at the suspension of pulley: particle or body, The direction of pseudo force
must be opposite to the direction of acceleration
4m1 m2 𝑔
R = 2T = of the non-inertial frame.
( m1 + m2 )
When we draw the free body diagram of a mass,
Case-II with respect to an inertial frame of reference
we apply only the real forces (forces which are
actually acting on the mass ) But when the free
body diagram is drawn from a non-inertial
frame of reference a pseudo force (in addition
to all real forces) has to be applied to make the
equation F ⃗ = ma⃗ to be valid in this frame also,

For mass m1 :
T = m1 a
For mass m2 : m2 𝑔 − T = m2 a (a) If the lift moving with constant velocity
v upwards or downwards . In this case
Acceleration : there is no accelerated motion hence no
m2 𝑔 m1 m2 pseudo force experienced by observer
a= anⅆ T = 𝑔
( m1 + m2 ) ( m1 + m2 ) inside the lift.
So apparent weight 𝑊′ = 𝑀𝑔 =
Actual weight
(b) If the lift is accelerated upward with
constant acceleration a ,Then forces
acting on the man w.r.t observed inside
 Inertial frames of reference: A the lift are
reference frame which is either at rest (i) Weight W = Mg downward
or in uniform motion along the straight (ii) Fictitious force F0 = Ma
line. A non-accelerating frame of downward
reference is called an inertial frame of
reference. So apparent weight W ′ = W + F0 = Mg +
All the fundamental laws of physics Ma = M(g + a)
have been formulated in respect of
inertial frame of reference. (c) If the lift is accelerated downward with
 Non- inertial frame of reference :An acceleration 𝑎 < 𝑔
accelerating frame of reference is Then w.r.t observer inside the lift
called a non-inertial frame of reference, fictitious force F0 = Mg acts upward
Newton's laws of motion are not - while weight of man W = Mg always
inertial frame of reference, Newton's acts downward
laws of motion are not directly So apparent weight W ′ = W − F0 =
applicable in such frames, before Mg − Ma = M(g − a)
application we must add pseudo force Special Case:

Page | 23
 If 𝑎 = 𝑔 then 𝑊′ = 0 (condition (fs )max
𝜇s = N
,0 ≤ f𝑠 ≤ 𝜇s N , ⃗⃗fs = −F
⃗ applied
weightlessness)
(fs )max= 𝜇s 𝑁 = limiting friction
Thus, in a freely falling lift the man will
experience weightlessness.  Sliding friction coefficient
(d) If lift accelerates downward with 𝐟𝐤
𝛍𝐤 = , 𝐟k= −(𝛍𝐤 𝐍)𝐯̂relative
acceleration 𝑎 > 𝑔, Then as in Case 𝐍
(c)  Angle of Friction (𝝀)
Apparent weight W'=M(g-a) is
negative i.e., the man will be
accelerated downward and will stay at
the ceiling of the lift.

Friction is the force of two surfaces in contact,

or the force of a medium acting on a moving
object, (i.e air on aircraft.)
fL μs N
tan 𝜆 = = = μs
Frictional forces arise due to molecular N N
interactions, In some cases friction acts as a
 Angle of repose: The maximum angle
supporting force and in some cases it acts as
of an inclined plane for which a block
opposing force.
remains stationary on the plane.
 Case of Friction : Friction is arises on
account of strong atomic or molecular
forces of attraction between the two
surfaces at the point of actual contact.
 Types of friction

 For smooth surface 𝜃𝑅 = 0

Graph between applied force and force of
friction

Method I : Method of constraint equations

ⅆx1
∑ x1 = constant ⇒ ∑ =0
ⅆt
ⅆ2 xi
⇒∑ 2 =0
ⅆt
For n moving bodies we have x1 , x2 , … . xn
No. on constraint equations = no. of strings
 Static friction coefficient

Page | 24
Method II : Method of virtual work:  Rockets move by pushing the exhaust
gases out so they can fly at low & high
The sum of scalar products of forces applied by altitude
connecting links of constant length and  Pulling a lawn roller is easier than
displacement of corresponding links of constant pushing it because pushing increases
length and displacement of corresponding the apparent weight and hence friction.
contact points equal to zero  A moongphaliwala sells his
∑ ⃗F1. 𝛿𝑟1= 0 ⇒ ∑ ⃗F1.v moongphali using a weighing machine
⃗ 1= 0 ⇒ ∑ ⃗F . 𝑎1= 0
in an elevator ,He gain more profit if
Ex the elevator is accelerating up because
the apparent weight of an object
increased in an elevator while
accelerating upward
 Pulling (figure I) is easier than pushing
(figure II) on a rough horizontal surface
because normal reaction is less in
pulling than in pushing.

Here 2a2 = a1
Method I :  While walking on ice, one should take
dx1 dx2 small steps to avoid slipping. This is
x1 + 2xc = l ⇒ dt
+2 dt
=0 because smaller step increases the
normal reaction and that ensure smaller
𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑 2 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 2
+2 𝑑𝑡 2
=0 friction.
 A man is a closed cabin (lift) falling
⇒ 𝑎1 + 2(−𝑎2 ) = 0 ⇒ 2𝑎2 = 𝑎1 freely does not experience gravity as
inertial and gravitational mass have
Method II:
equivalence.
−Ta1 + 2Ta2 = 0 ⇒ 2a2 = a1
 Aeroplanes
always fly at low
altitudes because
according to
Newton's III law
 Acceleration of block as inclined plane
of motion as
(Rough)
aeroplane
displaces air & at 𝑎 = 𝑔(sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝐾 cos 𝜃)
low altitude density of air is high.

Page | 25
  The energy possessed by a body by the
virtue of its motion is called kinnetic
energy.
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃 1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚(𝑣 . 𝑣 )
2 2
[where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐹 and 𝑑𝑟]  Kinetic energy is a frame dependent
quantity.
 For constant force 𝑊 = 𝐹 . 𝑑 =  Kinetic energy is never negative.
𝐹𝑑 cos 𝜃
 For Undirectional force
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = Area between
𝐹 − 𝑥 curve and x-axis.
Calculation of work done from force-
displacement graph : A force varying with position or time is known
as the varibale force
Total work done,
𝑥 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑊 = ∑𝑥21 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = Area of 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑁𝑀
𝑑𝑆 = 𝑑𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑘̂

𝐵 𝑥 𝑦
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = ∫𝐴 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑆 = ∫𝑥 𝐵 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑦 𝐵 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑥 +
𝐴 𝐴
𝐵 𝑧
∫𝑧 𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝐴

 Central forces, spring forces etc. are

conservative forces
 When only a conservative force acts
within a system, the kinetic energy and
 Work done does not depend upon potential energy can change into each
path. other. However, their sum, the
 Work done in a round trip is zero.

Page | 26
 mechanical energy of the system, 𝑑𝑈
𝐹=− ⇒ 𝑑𝑈 = −𝐹𝑑𝑥 ⇒
doesn't change. 𝑑𝑥
𝑈 𝑥
 Work done is completely recoverable. ∫𝑈 2 𝑑𝑈 = ∫𝑥 2 𝐹𝑑𝑥
1 1
 ⃗ ×
If 𝐹 is a conservative force then, 𝑉 ⇒ ∆𝑈 = −𝑊𝐶
𝐹 = 0 (i.e. curl of 𝐹 is zero)  Potential energy may be positive or
negative or even zero.

 Work done depends upon path.

 Work done in a round trip is not zero. i) Potential energy is positive, if force
 Forces are velocity-dependent & field is repulsive in nature
retarding in nature e.g. friction. viscous ii) Potential energy is negative, if force
force etc. field is attractive in nature
 Work done against a non-conservative  If 𝑟 ↑ (separation between body and
force may be dissipated as heat energy. force centre), 𝑈 ↑, force field is
 Work done is not recoverable. attractive or vice-versa.
 If 𝑟 ↑, 𝑈 ↓, force field is repulsive in
nature.

 The energy possessed by a body by

virtue of its position or configuration in
a conservative force field. It is a curve which shows the change in
 Potential energy is a relative quantity. potential energy with the position of a particle.
 Potential energy is defined only for
conservative force field.
 Potential energy of a body at any
position in a conservative force field is
defined as the external work done
against the action of conservative force
in order to shift it from a certain
reference point (PE = 0) to the present
position
 Potential energy of a body in a
conservative force field is equal to the
work done by the conservative force in
moving the body from its present
position to reference position After a particle is slightly displaced from its
 At a certain reference position, the equilibrium position if it tends to come back
potential energy of the body is assumed towards equilibrium then it is said to be in
to be zero or the body is assumed to stable equilibrium.
have lost the capacity of doing work 𝑑𝑈
 Relationship between conservative At point A: slope 𝑑𝑥 is negative so F is positive
𝑑𝑈
force field and potential energy: At point C : slope is positive. So F is
𝜕𝑈 𝑑𝑥
𝐹 = −∇𝑈 = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑈) = 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 − negative
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝜕𝑦
𝑗̂ − 𝜕𝑧 𝑘̂ At euilibrium 𝐹 = − 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑈

 If force varies with only one dimension

(say along x-axis then At point B: it is the point of stable equilibrium.
𝑑𝑈 𝑑2 𝑈
At point B: 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 , 𝑑𝑥 = 0 & 𝑑𝑥 2 = positive

Page | 27
  Mass and energy are equivalent and are
related by 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

After a particle is slightly displaced from its

equilibrium position, if it tends to move away
from equilibrium position then it is said to be in
unstable equilibrium.  Power is a scalar quantity with
𝑑𝑈 dimension 𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −3
At point D : slope is positive so F is negative  SI unit of power is J/s or watt
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑈
At point G: slope is negative so F is positive  1 horsepower = 746 watt = 550 ft-
𝑑𝑥
At point E: it is the point of unstable lb/sec.
𝑑𝑈
equilibrium; At point E 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and Average Power : 𝑃𝑎𝑦 = 𝑊/𝑡
𝑑2 𝑈
𝑑𝑥 2
= negative

After a particle is slightly displaced from its

equilibrium position if no force acts on it then
the equilibrium is said to be neutral equilibrium.
Point H corresponds to neutral equilibrium ⇒ U
𝑑𝑈 𝑑2 𝑈
= constant; = 0, =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

 For a system of varying mass 𝐹 =

𝑑 ⃗
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
(𝑚𝑣 ) =𝑚 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
Change in kinetic energy = work done by all  If 𝑣 = constant then 𝐹 = 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
then
forces 𝑑𝑚
𝑃 = 𝐹. 𝑣 = 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑼 𝑑𝜃
For conservative force 𝒇(𝒙) = −  In rotatory motion: 𝑃 = 𝜏 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜏𝜔
𝒅𝒙
 A body may
Change in potential energy ∆𝑈 = − ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 gain kinetic energy
and potential energy
simultaneously
because principle of
conservation of
mechanical energy
Total mechanical (kinetic + potential) energy of
may not be valid every time.
a system remains constant if only conservative
 Comets move around the sun in
forces are acting on the system of particles or
elliptical orbits, The gravitational force
the work done by all other forces is zero. From
on the cornet due to sun is not normal
work energy theorem 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸
to the comet's velocity but the work
Proof : For internal conservative forces 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = done by the gravitational force is zero
−∆𝑈 in complete round trip because
gravitational force is a conservative
So 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −∆𝑈 ⇒ force.
−∆𝑈 = ∆𝐾𝐸 ⇒ ∆(𝐾𝐸 + 𝑈) = 0 ⇒ 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑈  Work done by static friction may be
constant positive because static friction may acts
along the direction of motion of an
 Spring force 𝐹 ± 𝑘𝑥, Elastic potential
1 object.
energy stored in spring 𝑈(𝑥) = 2 𝑘𝑥 2

Page | 28
 Work done by static friction on a  If momentum of a particle is zero, then
complete system is always zero but its KE must be zero, but if momentum
work done by static friction on an of a system is zero then its KE may not
object may be +ve, –ve or zero. be zero.
 Work done by internal force of tension  If kinetic energy of a system is zero,
and normal reaction on a complete then its momentum must be zero.
system is always zero.  A particle can have momentum without
having total mechanical energy.

Page | 29
  For uniform angular velocity 𝜔 =
2𝜋
𝑇
= 2𝜋f or 2𝜋𝑛
 Angular displacement 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
𝑣
 Relation between 𝜔 and 𝑣 𝜔=𝑟
When a particle moves in a plane such that its In vector form 𝑣=
distance from a fixed (or moving) point remains 𝜔
⃗ ×𝑟
⃗
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
constant then its motion is called as circular  Acceleration 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡 (𝜔
⃗ × 𝑟) =
motion with respect to the fixed point. That ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑟
fixed point is called enter and the distance is 𝑑𝑡
×𝑟+𝜔 ⃗ × 𝑑𝑡
called radius of circular path. =𝛼×𝑟+𝜔 ⃗ × 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎𝑐
𝑑𝑣
 Tangential acceleration: 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛼𝑟
[𝑎𝑡 = component of 𝑎 along 𝑣 =
𝑑𝑣
(𝑎 ∙ 𝑣 ) = ( ) 𝑣 ]
𝑑𝑡
The vector joining the centre of the circle and  Centripetal acceleration :
the particle performing circular motion is called 𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = 𝜔𝑣 = 𝑟 = 𝜔2 𝑟 or 𝑎𝑐 =
radius vector. It has constant magnitude and
variable direction. It is directed on outwards. 𝜔2 𝑟(−𝑟)
 Magnitude of net acceleration :
2
𝑣2 𝑑𝑣 2
𝑎= √𝑎𝑐2+ 𝑎𝑡2 = √(
) +( )
𝑟 𝑑𝑡
 For constant angular acceleration
Number of revolution described by the particle 𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡
per sec. is called its frequency. Its unit is 1
revolutions per second (r.p.s.) or revolutions 𝜃 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑡 2
2
per minute (r.p.m.) 𝜔2 = 𝜔02 + 2𝛼𝜃
 Maximum speed in circular motion.
 On unbanked road: 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝜇𝑠 𝑅𝑔
 On banked road :
𝜇+tan 𝜃
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √(1−𝜇 tan 𝜃) 𝑅𝑔 =
It is time taken by particle to complete one √tan(𝜃 + 𝜙)𝑅𝑔
revolution.
1 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √𝑅𝑔 tan(𝜃 − 𝜙) ; 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤
𝑇=𝑛
𝑣 ≤ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑠
 Angle 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑟 where 𝜙 = angle of friction =
(𝜃 must be in radian) tan−1 𝜇𝑠
𝜃 = angle of banking
𝑣2
 Bending of cyclist : tan 𝜃 = 𝑟𝑔

∆𝜃
 Average angular velocity 𝜔 = ∆𝑡 (a
scalar quantity)
 Instantaneous angular velocity 𝜔 =
𝑑𝜃 R= contact force
𝑑𝑡
(a vector quantity)

Page | 30
 Note: After leaving the circle, the particle will
follow a parabolic path.

A. Condition to complete vertical circle

𝑢 ≥ √5𝑔𝑅
If 𝑢 = √5𝑔𝑅 then tension at C is
equal to 0 and tension at A is equal to
6mg
Velocity at B: 𝑣𝐵 = √3𝑔𝑅  Average angle
Velocity at C: 𝑣𝑐 = √𝑔𝑅 velocity is a scalar
𝑚𝑣 2
physical quantity
From A to B: T=mgcos 𝜃 + 𝑅
whereas instantaneous
𝑚𝑣 2 angular velocity is
From B to C: T= −mgcos 𝜃
𝑅 velocity is a vector
physical quantity.
T is  Small angular displacement 𝑑𝜃 is a
maximum at vector quantity, but larger angular
bottom and displacement 𝜃 is a scalar quantity.
minimum at 𝑑𝜃1 + 𝑑𝜃2 = 𝑑𝜃2 + 𝑑𝜃1
top
But 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ≠ 𝜃2 + 𝜃1

 Relative Angular Velocity

Relative angular velocity of particle
‘A’ w.r.t. other moving particle B is the
angular velocity of the position vector
of 𝐴 w.r.t. 𝐵.
This means it is the rate at which
B. Condition for oscillation position vector of ‘A’ w.r.t. B rotates at
u≤ √2𝑔𝑅 (in between A and B) that instant
Velocity can be zero but T is never
zero between A & B.
Because T given by T=mgcos 𝜃 +
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑅
At B (for u= √2𝑔𝑅), both becomes
zero simultaneously. (𝑣𝐴𝐵 )⊥
𝜔𝐴𝐵 = 𝑟𝐴𝐵
=
Relative velocity of A w.r.t
B perpendicular to line AB
seperation between A and B
here (𝑣𝐴𝐵 )⊥ = 𝑣𝐴 sin 𝜃1 +
𝑣 sin 𝜃1 +𝑏𝐵 sin 𝜃2
𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃2 ∴ 𝜔𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴
𝑟
 Radius of curvature
C. Condition for leaving path :
√2𝑔𝑅 < 𝑢 < √5𝑔𝑅
Particle crosses the point B but does not
complete the vertical circle.
Tension will be zero at a point between 𝑣2
B and C & the corresponding angle is 𝑅=𝑎 where 𝑣 = speed, 𝑎𝑁 = normal
𝑁
given by acceleration
𝑢2 −2𝑔𝑅
cos 𝜃 = 3𝑔𝑅
;𝜃 is from vertical line

Page | 31
For a system of particles centre of mass is that
point at which its total mass is supposed be
concentrated.
Centre of mass of system of discrete
particles:

Total mass of the body:

𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯ + 𝑚𝑛 then
𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 + ⋯ 1
𝑅⃗𝐶𝑀 = = ∑𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 + ⋯ 𝑀
Coordinates of centre of mass:
1 1 1
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 𝑀 ∑𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝐶𝑚 = 𝑀 ∑𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 & 𝑀 ∑𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖

Centre of mass of continuous distribution of

particles:
1
𝑅⃗𝐶𝑀 = ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑚
𝑀
1 1
𝑥𝑐𝑚 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑚, 𝑦𝑐𝑚 = ∫𝑦 𝑑𝑚 and 𝑧𝑐𝑚 =
𝑀 𝑀
∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑚
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 are the coordinate of the COM of the dm
mass.
The centre of the mass after removal of a part
of a body
Original Mass (M) – mass of the removed part
(m) = {original mass (M)}+{–mass of the
removed part (m)}
The formula changes to :
𝑀𝑥 −𝑚𝑥′ 𝑀𝑦 −𝑚𝑦 ′
𝒙𝐶𝑀 = : 𝑦𝐶𝑀 = : 𝑦𝐶𝑀 =
𝑀−𝑚 𝑀−𝑚
𝑀𝑧 −𝑚𝑧 ′
𝑀−𝑚
where 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is CoM of original mass
& (𝑥 ′, 𝑦 , 𝑧 ′ ) is CoM of removed part.
′

Page | 32
 Impulse of a force is equal to the change of
momentum
𝑡
Impulse = ∫𝑡 2 𝐹 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝑝 = Area of 𝐹 − 𝑡
1
curve
Force time graph area gives change in
momentum.

The event or the process, in which two bodies

either coming in contact with each other or due
For system of particles, to mutual interaction at distance apart, affect
velocity of centre of mass each others motion (velocity, momentum.
𝑑𝑅𝐶𝑀 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 + ⋯ energy or direction of motion) is defined as a
𝑣𝐶𝑀 = = collision.
𝑑𝑡 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯
Similarly acceleration
𝑑 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝑚2 𝑎2 + ⋯
𝑎𝐶𝑀 = (𝑣𝑐𝑚 ) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + ⋯
 The particles come closer before
collision and after collision, they either
stick together or move away from each
other.
 The particles need not come in contact
Linear momentum of a system of particles is with each other for a collision.
equal to the product of mass of the system with  The law of conservation of linear
velocity of its centre of mass. momentum is necessarily applicable in
⃗
𝑑(𝑀𝑣 )
From Newton’s second law 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡𝑐𝑚 a collision, whereas the law of
If no external force acts on a system the velocity conservation of mechanical energy is
of its centre of mass remains constant. i.e., not.
velocity of centre of mass is unaffected by
internal forces.

𝑣2 − 𝑣1
=
𝑢1 − 𝑢2
Value of e is 1 for elastic collision, 0 for
perfectly inelastic collision and 0 < e < 1 for
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 elastic collision.
𝑒=− 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡

Page | 33
 against a light body B at rest, the body A should
keep on moving with same velocity and the
body B will move with velocity double that of
A.
If 𝑚2 > > 𝑚1 and 𝑢2 = 0 then 𝑣2 = − 𝑢1
When light body A collides against a heavy
body B at rest, the body A should start moving
with same speed just in opposite direction while
the body B should practically remain at rest.
 Loss in kinetic energy in inelastic
(i) Linear momentum is conserved collision
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣 𝑚1 𝑚2
2 ∆𝐾 = (1 − 𝑒 2 )|𝑢1 − 𝑢2 |2
(ii) KE is not conserved but initial KE 2(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
is equal to final KE
1 1 1
𝑚 𝑢2 + 2 𝑚2 𝑢22 = 2 𝑚1 𝑣12 +
2 1 1
1
𝑚 𝑣2
2 2 2 Conserving the momentum of system in
(iii) Rate of separation = Rate of directions along normal (x axis in our case) and
approach tangential (y axis in our case)
i.e., 𝑒 = 1 ⇒ 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 𝑚1 𝑢1 cos 𝛼1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 cos 𝛼2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 cos 𝛽1 +
𝑚2 𝑣2 cos 𝛽2 and 𝑚1 𝑢1 sin 𝛼1 +
𝑚2 𝑢2 sin 𝛼2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 sin 𝛽1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 sin 𝛽2

Let the coefficient of restitution for collision is

𝑒
(i) Momentum is conserved 𝑚1 𝑢1 +
𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 … (i)
(ii) Kinetic Energy is not conserved.
(iii) According to Newton’s law 𝑒 = Since no force is acting on 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , along
𝑣2 −𝑣1
𝑢 −𝑢
… (ii) the tangent (i.e., y-axis) the individual
1 2
By solving eq. (i) and (ii): momentum of 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 , remains conserved
𝑚1 −𝑒𝑚2 (1+𝑒)𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑢1 sin 𝛼1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 sin 𝛽1 and
𝑣1 = ( ) 𝑢1 + ( ) 𝑢2 = 𝑚2 𝑢2 sin 𝛼2 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 sin 𝛽2
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑚1 +𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2 −𝑚2 𝑒(𝑢1 −𝑢2 ) By using Newton’s experimental law along the
𝑚1 +𝑚2 𝑣 cos 𝛽 −𝑣 cos 𝛽
𝑚2 −𝑒𝑚1 (1+𝑒)𝑚 line of impact 𝑒 = 𝑢2 cos 𝛼2 −𝑢1 cos 𝛼1
𝑣2 = ( 𝑚 +𝑚 ) 𝑢1 + ( 𝑚 +𝑚 1 ) 𝑢2 = 1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2
𝑚1 𝑢1 +𝑚2 𝑢2 −𝑚1 𝑒(𝑢2 −𝑢1 )
𝑚1 +𝑚2

𝑑𝑚
Thrust force on the rocket = 𝑣𝑟 (− 𝑑𝑡 )
Velocity of rocket at any instant 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡 +
𝑚
 If the two bodies are of equal masses 𝑣𝑟 ℓ𝑛 ( 𝑚0 )
: 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚, 𝑣1 = 𝑢2 and 𝑣2 =
𝑢1
Thus, if two bodies of equal masses undergo
elastic collision in one dimension, then after the
collision, the bodies will exchange their
velocities.
 If the mass of a body is negligible as
compared to other
If 𝑚1 > > 𝑚2 and 𝑢2 = 0 then 𝑣1 =
𝑢1 , 𝑣2 = 2𝑢1 when a heavy body A collides

Page | 34
  Sum of mass  When a body is dropped from height h
moments about and it strikes the ground with velocity
centre of mass is 𝑣 after time 𝑡, then
zero. i.e. ∑𝑚𝑖 𝑟 𝑖 =  Velocity immediately after nth
𝑐𝑚 rebound
⃗
0
𝑣𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 𝑣 where 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ
 A quick
 Height attained by the ball after
collision between
nth rebound ℎ𝑛 = 𝑒 2𝑛 ℎ
two bodies is more violent then slow
 Time taken in nth rebound
collision, even when initial and final
2ℎ
velocities are equal because the rate of 𝑡𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑛 𝑡 where 𝑡 = √
𝑔
change of momentum determines that
the impulsive force small or large.  Total time taken in bouncing
 Heavy water is used as moderator in 2ℎ 1 + 𝑒
nuclear reactors as energy transfer is 𝑇=√ ( )
𝑔 1−𝑒
maximum if 𝑚1 ≃ 𝑚2 .
 Impulse-momentum theorem is  Distance covered by the ball
equivalent to Newton's second law of before it stops
motion. 1 + 𝑒2
𝑆 = ℎ( )
 For a system, conservation of linear 1 − 𝑒2
momentum is equivalent to Newton's
third law of motion.

Page | 35
 Rigid body is defined as a system of particles in which distance between each pair of
particles remains constant (with respect to time) that means the shape and size do
not change, during the motion.
Eg: Fan, Pen, Table, stone and so on.

Radius of Gyration (K)

Moment of Inertia K has no meaning without axis of rotation.
The virtue by which a body 𝐼 = 𝑀𝐾 2 K is scalar quantity
revolving about an axis opposes
the change in rotational motion is known 1
Radius of gyration: 𝐾 = √𝑀
as moment of inertia.
Perpendicular axis theorem: 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
(body lies in the x-y plane)

 The moment of inertia of a particle with

respect to an axis of rotation is equal to
the product of mass of the particle is
equal to the product of mass rotational
axis. I= 𝑚𝑟 2 (Valid only for 2-dimensional body)
r = perpendicular distance from axis of
rotation Parallel axis theorem: 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑐𝑚 + 𝑀𝑑2
 Moment of inertia of a system of
particles

(for all type of bodies)

𝐼 = 𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 + ⋯
or I= ∑𝑚𝑟 2 𝐼𝑐𝑚 = moment of inertia about the axis passing
I= ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑚 through centre of mass

Page | 36
 Shape of body Position of the Figure Moment of Radius of
axis of rotation Inertia (I) gyration
(K)
(1) Circular Ring (a) About an axis
perpendicular to 𝑀𝑅2 𝑅
the plane and
Mass = M Radius = passing through
R the centre
(b) About the
diametric axis 1 𝑅
𝑀𝑅2
2 √2

(c) About an axis

tangential to the 2𝑀𝑅2 √2 𝑅
rim and
perpendicular to
the plane of the
ring
(d) About an axis
3 3
tangential to the √ 𝑅
rim and lying in 𝑀𝑅2 2
2
the plane of ring

(2) Circular Disc (a) About an axis

passing through 1 𝑅
the centre and 𝑀𝑅2
M 2 √2
perpendicular to
= Mass R = Radius the plane of disc

(b) About a
diametric axis 𝑀𝑅2 𝑅
4 2

(c) About an axis

tangential to the 5 √5
rim and lying in 𝑀𝑅2 𝑅
4 2
the plane of the
disc

(d) About an axis

3 3
tangential to the √ 𝑅
rim & 𝑀𝑅2 2
2
perpendicular to
the plane of disc

Page | 37
(3) Annular disc (a) About an axis
passing through
the centre and 𝑀 2
[𝑅 + 𝑅22 ] 𝑅12 + 𝑅22
perpendicular to 2 1 √
M = Mass 𝑅1 = the plane of disc 2
Internal Radius
𝑅2 = Outer Radius
(b) About a
diametric axis 𝑀 2 √𝑅12 + 𝑅22
[𝑅 + 𝑅22 ]
4 1 2

(4) Solid Sphere (a) About its

diametric axis 2
which passes 𝑀𝑅2 2
5 √ 𝑅
through its centre 5
of mass
M = Mass
R = Radius
(b) About a
tangent to the 7
𝑀𝑅2 7
sphere 5 √ 𝑅
5

(5) Hollow Sphere (a) About

(Tin spherical Shell) diametric axis 2
passing through 𝑀𝑅2 2
3 √ 𝑅
centre of mass 3

M = Mass (b) About a

R = Radius tangent to the 5
Thickness negligible surface 𝑀𝑅2 5
3 √ 𝑅
3

(6) Hollow Cylinder (a) About its

geometrical axis 𝑀𝑅2 𝑅
which is parallel
to its length

M = Mass (b) About an axis

R = Radius which is
𝑅2 𝐿2
L = Length Perpendicular to 𝑀𝑅2 𝑀𝐿2 √ +
its length and + 2 12
2 12
passing through
its centre of mass

Page | 38
 (c) About an axis
perpendicular to 𝑀𝑅2 𝑀𝐿2
its length and + 𝑅2 𝐿2
2 3 √ +
passing through 2 3
one end of the
cylinder

(7) Solid Cylinder (a) About its

M = Mass geometrical axis, 𝑀𝑅2 𝑅
R = Radius which is along its 2 √2
L = Length length

(b) About an axis

tangential to the 3
lateral surface and 𝑀𝑅2 3
2 √ 𝑅
parallel to its 2
geometrical axis

(c) About an axis

passing through 𝑀𝐿2 𝑀𝑅2
centre of mass and + 𝐿2 𝑅2
12 4 √ +
perpendicular to 12 4
its length

(8) Thin Rod (a) About an axis

passing through 𝑀𝐿2 𝐿
centre of mass and 12 √12
Thickness is perpendicular to
negligible w.r.t. its length
length
Mass =M (b) About an axis
Length = L passing through 𝑀𝐿2 𝐿
one end & 3 √3
perpendicular to
length of the rod
(9) Rectangular (a) About an axis
Plate passing through 𝑀𝑏 2 𝑏
centre of mass and 12 2√3
perpendicular to
side “b’ in its
plane
M = Mass (b) About an axis
A = Length passing through 𝑀𝑎2 𝑎
B = Breadth centre of mass and 12 2√3
perpendicular to
side ‘a’ in its
plane.
(c) About an
axis passing 𝑀(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
through centre 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
12 √
of mass and 12
perpendicular to
plane

Page | 39
 (10) Cube About an axis
passing through 𝑀𝑎2 𝑎
centre of mass 6 √6
and
perpendicular to
face
Mass = M
Side a

⃗
Torque about point O: τ⃗ = r × F
Magnitude of torque = Force × perpendicular
distance of line of action of force from the axis Direction of torque can be determined by using
of rotation. right hand thumb rule.
⇒ τ = rF sin θ

Angular momentum of a particle about a given  If a large torque acts on a body for a
is the product of its linear momentum and small time then, angular impulse =
perpendicular distance of lime of action of τ⃗ⅆt
linear momentum vector for the axis of rotation,
⃗L = r × p
⃗

Angular momentum of a particle or a system

remains constant if 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 about point or axis
of rotation.
∆L
If τ = 0 then ∆t
= 0 ⇒ L = constant
Magnitude of angular momentum = Linear ⇒ Lt = L1 or I1 ω1 = I2 ω2
momentum × Perpendicular distance of line of
momentu, from the axis of rotation
⇒ L = mv × r sin θ
Direction of angular momentum can be used
by using right hand thumb rule.
 If a person skating on ice folds has arms
 According to Newton’s Second Law then his M.I. decreases and ′𝜔′
⃗
dL increases.
for rotatory motion τ⃗ = = Iα
⃗.
dt
 Angular Impulse = Change in angular
momentum.

Page | 40
  A diver jumping from a height folds his
arms and legs (I decrease) in order to
increase no. of rotational air by
increasing ′𝜔′.
1
Kinetic Energy of Rotation KER = 2 Iω2
1 L 1
 Other forms K = 2 Iω2 = 2I = 2 Lω
 If external torque acting on a body is
equal to zero (τ = 0), L = Iω =
1
constant K ∝ I , K ∝ ω
 Rotational Work: Wτ = τθ (If torque is
 If a person moves towards the centre of θ
constant) W = ∫θ 2 τⅆθ (If torque is
rotating platform then ‘I’ decrease and 1

′𝜔′ increase. variable)

∵ I1 ω1 = I2 ω2 ⇒↓⇒ ω ↑ es  Work done by torque = Change in
kinetic energy of rotation. W =
1 1 1
2
Iω22 − 2 Iω12 = 2 I(ω22 − ω12 )
dW dθ
 Instantaneous power = = τ =
dt dt
∆W
τω Average power Pav =
∆t

When a body perform translator motion as well

as rotatory motion then it is known as rolling.

(ii) If a body is performing rolling then the

velocity of any point of the body with respect to
the surface is given by v
⃗ =v ⃗ cm + ω × R⃗
(i) If the velocity of point contact with respect
to the surface is zero then. It known as pure
rolling.

Page | 41
Only Translator motion + Only Rotatory = θ
Rolling motion. vnet = 2v cos
2
For pure rolling above body 𝑉𝐴 = 2𝑉𝐶𝑀

VE = √2 VCM VF = √2 V_CM
VB = 0

Vnet = √v 2 + R2 ω2 + 2vRω cos θ

Total Kinetic Energy

1 1 2 1 2
1 v2
E= + Iω = mv + mK ( )
2mv2 2 2 2 R2
1 K2
⇒ E = mv 2 (1 + )
2 R2

For pure rolling v = Rω K2 K2

Etranslation : Erotation : Etotal = 1: 2 : 1 + 2
R R

Body K2 Etrans 1 Etrans 1 𝐸𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐾2

= 2 = =
R2 Erotation K Etotal K2 𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅2
1+
R2 R2 𝐾2
1+ 2
𝑅
Ring 1 1 1/2 1/2
Disc 1/2 2 2/3 1/3
Solid sphere 2/5 5/2 5/7 2/7
Spherical shell 2/3 3/2 3/5 2/5
Solid cylinder 1/2 2 2/3 1/3
Hollow cylinder 1 1 1/2 ½

1 1 v2
mgh = mv 2 + mK ( 2 )
2 2 R
1 K2
mgh = 2 mv^2 (1 + R2 ) …(1)

h = s sin θ …(2)
from (1) & (2)

Applying Conservation of energy

2gh 2gs sin θ
1 1 VRolling = √ 2 =√
K K2
mgh = mv 2 + Iω2 1+ 2
R
1+ 2
R
2 2

Page | 42
 Linear acceleration on the inclined vS > vD > vH > vR
place aS > aD > aH > aR
g sin θ tS < tD < tH < tR
=
1 + K 2 /R2
For a pure rolling body after one full rotation
 Time taken to reach the lowest point
of the plane is
2s(1 + K 2 /R2 )
t=√
g sin θ
K2
 R2
Least, will reach first
𝐾2 displacement of lowermost point = 2Πr
𝑅2
Maximum, will reach last
K2 ⅆistance = 8R
 R2
equal, will reach together
 When ring, disc, hollows, sphere, solid The locus of this particle is called cycloid.
sphere rolls on same inclined plane
then

Page | 43
 𝐺𝑀𝑟
 Inside the sphere 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑅3
, where
𝑟<𝑅
[Note: Direction always towards the center
of the sphere]

Force of attraction between two point masses

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=
𝑟2 𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
Direction along the line joining of point masses. 𝑅2
𝐺𝑀
 It is conservative force field ⇒  At height h: 𝑔ℎ = (𝑅+ℎ)2
mechanical energy is conserved. 2ℎ
If h << 𝑅: 𝑔_𝑛 ≈ 𝑔𝑠 (1 − )
 It is central force field ⇒ angualar 𝑅
𝐺𝑀(𝑅−𝑑)
momentum is conserved.  At depth d: 𝑔𝑑 = 𝑅3
= 𝑔𝑠 (1 −
𝑑
)
𝑅
 Effect of rotation on 𝑔: 𝑔′ = 𝑔 −
𝜔2 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜆 where 𝜆 is angle of
latitude

𝐺𝑀
Due to a point mass at a distance 𝑟; 𝑉 = − 𝑟

𝐺𝑀
 Outside the shell 𝐸𝑔 = 2 , where 𝑟 >
𝑟
𝑅
𝐺𝑀
 On the surface 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑟2 , where 𝑟 = 𝑅
 Inside the shall 𝐸𝑔 = 0, where 𝑟 < 𝑅

𝐺𝑀
 Outside the shell 𝑉 = 𝑟 , 𝑟 > 𝑅
 Inside and on the surface the shell
𝐺𝑀
𝑉=− ,𝑟 ≤ 𝑅
𝑅

𝐺𝑀
 Outside the sphere 𝐸𝑔 = 𝒓𝟐 , where
𝑟>𝑅
𝐺𝑀
 On the surface 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑟2 , where
𝑟=𝑅

Page | 44
 𝑑𝐴 𝐿
Areal velocity = constant =
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
 3rd Law (Law of period) 𝑇 2 \∝ 𝑎3 or
𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛 3
𝑇2 ∝ ( 2
) ∝ (mean radius)³

For circular orbits 𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑅 3

𝐺𝑀
 Outside the sphere 𝑉 = − ,𝑟 > 𝑅  At the centre
𝑟
𝐺𝑀 of earth, a body
 On the surface 𝑉= − 𝑅 ,𝑟 = 𝑅 has centre of
 Insider the sphere 𝑉 = mass, but no
𝐺𝑀(3𝑅2 −𝑟 2 ) centre of gravity.
− 2𝑅3
,𝑟 < 𝑅
 The centre of
Potential on the axis of a thin ring at a mass and centre
distance x of gravity of a
body coincide if gravitation field is
𝐺𝑀
𝑉=− uniform.
√𝑅2 +𝑥 2
 You do not experience gravitational
Escape velocity from the surface a planet of force in daily life due to objects of same
mass M & radius R size as value of G is very small.
 Moon travelers tie heavy weight at their
2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒 = √ 𝑅
= √2𝑔𝑅 back before landing on Moon due to
smaller value of 𝑔 at Moon.
Orbital velocity of satellite  Space rockets are usually launched in
equatorial line from West to East
𝑣0 = √
2𝐺𝑀
=√
𝐺𝑀 because 𝑔 is minimum at equator and
𝑟 (𝑅+ℎ) earth rotates from West to Eest about
its axis.
𝐺𝑀 𝑣𝑒
 For nearby satellite 𝑣0 = √ =  Angular momentum in gravitational
𝑅 √2
field is conserved because gravitational
Here 𝑣𝑒 = escape velocity on earth surface. force is central force.
 Kepler’s second law or constancy of
Time period of satellite areal velocity is a consequence of
3 conservation of angular momentum.
𝑇=
2𝜋𝑟
=
2𝜋𝑟 2
 Geostationary satellites have same
𝑣 √𝐺𝑀
angular velocity (𝜔 ⃗ ) as earth.
Energies of a satellite  Height of geostationary satellite is
𝐺𝑀𝑚
approximately 36000 km.
 Potential energy 𝑈=− 𝑟  Time period of nearly satellite is
1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
 Kinetic energy 𝑘= 2
𝑚𝑣 2
= 2𝑟 𝑅
2𝜋√𝑔 ≈ 84.6 minutes
 Mechanical energy 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾 =
𝐺𝑀𝑚
or Total energy
2𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
 Binding energy 𝐵𝐸 = −𝐸 = 2𝑟
Speed of planet is maximum at
perihelion. Speed of planet is minimum
at aphelion.
 For a spherical body (Mass = M,
Radius = R) to be a black hole.
 1st Law (Law of orbit) Path of a planet
is elliptical with the sun at a focus. 2𝐺𝑀
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 = √ 𝑅
≥ 𝑐s
 2nd Law (Law of area)

Page | 45
  It is property of material to resist the
deformation so steel is more elastic
then rubber.

U = Potential energy,
r = inter atomic distance
Internal restoring force 𝐹𝑅𝑒𝑠
Stress = Area of cross−section
− 𝐴
.
Change in size of the body
There are three types of stress:- Strain =
Original size of the body

Longitudinal strain =
change in lenght of the body ∆𝐿
initial length of the body
= 𝐿

change in volume of the body

Volume strain = =
(a) Tensile Stress: original volume of the body
∆𝑉
𝑣

ℓ ℓ displacement of upper face

tan 𝜙 = 𝐿 or 𝜙 = 𝐿 = distance between two faces

(b) Compressive stress:

Relation between angle of twist (𝜽) & angle

of shear (𝝓)

AA’= 𝑟𝜃 and Arc AA’= ℓ𝜙

Page | 46
So, 𝑟𝜃 = ℓ𝜙 ⇒ 𝜙 =
𝑟𝜃 ⇒ 𝛾𝑃𝑉 𝛾−1 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 ? 𝑑𝑃 = 0
ℓ
𝑑𝑃
where 𝜃 = angle of twist, 𝜙 = angle of shear ⇒ 𝛾𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑝 = 0 ⇒ 𝛾𝑃 = − ⅆ𝑉 ;
𝑉
Stress – Strain Graph
So, bulk modulus = 𝛾𝑃
 For any polytrophic process 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 =
constant
⇒ 𝑛𝑃𝑉 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑛 𝑑𝑃 = 0
⇒ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 0
−𝑑𝑃
⇒ 𝑛𝑃 =
𝑑𝑉/𝑉

Note: It DE portion is more, then material is So bulk modulus = 𝑛𝑃

more ductile. 𝟏 1
Compressibility C = 𝐵𝑖𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝐾

Modulus of rigidity
shearing stress (𝐹tan 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )/𝐴
𝜂= =
shearing strain 𝜙
within elastic limit Stress ∝ strain
lateral strain
 Young’s modulus of elasticity Poisson’s ratio (𝜎) = Longitudinal strain
Longitudinal stress 𝐹ℓ
𝑌 = Longitudinal strain = 𝐴∆ℓ Work done in stretching wire
 If L is the length of wire, r is radius and
1
ℓ is the increase in length of the wire by 𝑊= × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒:
suspending a weight Mg at its one end 2
then Young’s midulus of elasticity of 1 𝐹 ∆ℓ 1
the materal of wire 𝑊= × × × 𝐴 × ℓ = 𝐹 × ∆ℓ
2 𝐴 ℓ 2
𝑀𝑔 Rod is rigidly fixed between walls
( 2 ) 𝑀𝑔𝐿
𝑦= 𝜋𝑟 = 2
ℓ 𝜋𝑟 ℓ
(𝐿)

 Increment in length due to own

weight
𝑀𝑔𝐿 𝑝𝑔𝐿2  Thermal Strain = 𝛼∆𝜃
∆𝓵 =
2𝐴𝑌
=
2𝑌  Thermal stress = 𝑌𝛼∆𝜃
 Thermal tension = 𝑌𝛼𝐴∆𝜃
 Bulk modulus of elasticity
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝐹/𝐴 𝑝
𝐾= = ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (− ) (− )
𝑉 𝑉

 Bulk modulus of an ideal gas is

process dependence. When temperature is increased then due to
 For isothermal process PV = constant weakness of inter molecular force the elastic
𝑑𝑃 properties in general decreases i.e. elastic
⇒ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 0 ⇒ 𝑃 = − constant decreases. Plasticity increases with
𝑑𝑉/𝑉
temperature. For example, at ordinary room
So bulk modulus = P temperature, carbon is elastic but at high
temperature, carbon becomes plastic but at high
 For adiabatic process PV = constant temperature, carbon becomes plastic. Lead is
not much elastic at room temperature but when

Page | 47
cooled in liquid nitrogen exhibit highly elastic acceleration 𝑎0 then pressure in the
behaviour. fluid, at depth ℎ may be given by,
𝑃 = ℎ𝜌[𝑔 + 𝑎0 ] + 𝑃0
For a special kind of steel, elastic constants do
not vary appreciably temperature. This steel is
called ‘INVAR steel’.

(ii) Free surface of liquid in case of

Y may increase or decrease depends upon type horizontal acceleration:
impurity.

mass
 Density = volume 𝑚𝑎0 𝑎0
tan 𝜃 = =
weight weight 𝑚𝑔 𝑔
 Specific weight = = 𝜌𝑔
volume volume
 Relative density = If 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are pressures at point 1 &
density of given liquid 2 then 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝑝𝑔(ℎ − ℎ2 ) =
density of pure water at 4°C 𝑝𝑔ℓ tan 𝜃 = 𝜌ℓ𝑎0
 Density of Mixture of substance in
the proportion of mass (iii) Free surface of liquid in case of
rotating cylinder
𝑀 +𝑀2 +𝑀3 …..
the density of the mixture is 𝜌 = 𝑀11 𝑀 𝑀
+ 22+ 3+⋯
𝜌1 𝜌 𝜌3

 Density of mixture of substance in

the proportion of volume
𝜌1 𝑉1 +𝜌2 𝑉2 +𝜌3 𝑉3
the density of the mixture is 𝜌 = 𝑉1 +𝑉2 +𝑉3 +⋯

𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
 Pressure = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑣2 𝜔2 𝑟 2
ℎ = 2𝑔 =
 Variation of pressure with depth 2𝑔
Pressure is same at two points in the
same horizontal level 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
The difference of pressure between two
points separated by a depth ℎ: (𝑃2 −
𝑃1 ) = ℎ𝜌𝑔

Force on the wall of dam = (Pressure of the

centre) (contact area)
𝝆𝒈𝑯
(𝑷𝟎 + ) (𝑯𝑳)
(i) Liquid placed in elevator: When 𝟐
elevator accelerates upward with

Page | 48
 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝜌𝑔 or 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 ∝ ℎ

 The pressure in a fluid at rest is same

at all the points if gravity is ignored.
 A liquid exerts equal pressures in all
directions.
 If the pressure in an enclosed fluid is
changed at a particular point, the
change is transmitted to every point of Gauge pressure is always measured with help
the fluid and to the walls of the of “monometer”
container without being diminished in
 Absolute Pressure:
magnitude. [for ideal fluids]
Sum of atmospheric and Gauge
pressure is called absolute pressure.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 ⇒ 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃° + ℎ𝜌𝑔
The pressure which we measure in our
Pressure is of three types: automobile tyres gauge pressure.
(i) Atmospheric pressure (𝑃0 )
 Buoyant force
(ii) Gauge pressure (𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 ) Weight of displaced fluid = 𝑉𝜌𝑔
 Apparent weight Weight – Up thrust
(iii) Absolute pressure (𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠. )  Rotatory – Equilibrium in
Floatation:
 Atmospheric pressure: For rotational equilibrium of floating
Force exerted by air column on unit body the meta – centre must always be
cross – section area of sea level called higher then the centre of gravity of the
atmospheric pressure (𝑃0 ) body.
 Relative density of body
Density of boⅆy 𝑊𝐴
= =
Density of water 𝑊𝐴 − 𝑊𝑤

𝐹
𝑃0 = 𝐴 = 101.3𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 = 1.013 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2  Steady and Unsteady Flow: Steady
flow is defined as that type of flow in
Barometer is used to measure atmospheric which the fluid characteristics like
pressure. velocity, pressure and density at a point
do not change with time.
Which was discovered by Torricelli.  Streamline Flow: In steady flow all,
Atmospheric pressure varies from place to the particle passing through a given
place and at a particular place from time to point follow the same path and hence a
time. unique lime of flow. This line or path is
called a streamline.
 Gauge Pressure:  Laminar and Turbulent Flow:
Laminar flow is the flow in which the
Excess Pressure (𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ) measured with the fluid particles move along well defined
help of pressure measuring instrument called streamlines which are straight and
Gauge pressure. parallel.

Page | 49
 Compressible and Incompressible
Flow: In compressible flow the density
of fluid varies from point to point, i.e.
the density is not constant for the fluid
whereas in incompressible flow the
density of the fluid remains constant
throughout. 𝐻
 Rotational and Irrotational Flow:  For maximum range ℎ = 2 , 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
Rotational flow is the flow in which the 𝐻
fluid particles while flowing along path  In horizontal flow rate of flow =
– lines also rotate about their own axis. 2𝑔ℎ
In irrotational flow particles do not 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 = 𝐴1 𝐴2 √𝐴2 −𝐴2
1 2
rotate about their axis.
 Equation of continuity: 𝜌𝐴1 𝑣1 =
𝜌𝐴2 𝑣2 Based on conservation of mass
 Bernoulli’s theorem:
1
𝑃 + 2 𝜌 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ =constant Surface tension is basically a property of liquid
surface. The liquid surface behaves like a
Based on energy conservation stretched elastic membrane which has a natural
 Kinetic Energy: Kinetic energy per tendency to contract and tend to have a
𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 minimum surface area. This property of liquid
unit volume = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= is called surface tension.
1𝑚 2 1
2𝑉
𝑣 = 2 𝜌𝑣 2

(a) Cohesive force: The force acting

between the molecules of one type of
molecules of same substance is called
 Potential Energy: Potential energy cohesive force.
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
per unit volume = = (b) Adhesive force: The force acting
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
𝑉
𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ between different types of molecules or
 Pressure Energy: Pressure energy per molecules of different substance is
Pressure energy called adhesive force.
unit volume = volume
=𝑃
 For horizontal flow in venturimeter:  Intermolecular forces are different
1 1 from the gravitational forces and do not
𝑃1 + 2 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 2 𝜌𝑣 2 ⇒ 𝑣1 =
obey the inverse – square law.
2𝑔ℎ
𝐴2 √𝐴2 −𝐴2  The distance upto which these forces
1 2 effective, is called molecular range.
 Rate of flow: Volume of water flowing This distance is nearly 10−9 m. Within
per second: 𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑣1 = this limit this increases very rapidly as
𝐴_1𝐴2 √
2𝑔ℎ the distance decreases.
𝐴21 −𝐴22  Molecular range depends on the nature
 Velocity of efflux: 𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ of the substance
 Horizontal range: 𝑅 = 2√ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ)

Page | 50
 Surface tension is scalar quantity.
 It acts tangential to liquid surface.
 More is the cohesive force, more is the
surface tension.
 When surface area of liquid is
The force acting per unit length of an imaginary
increased, molecules from the interior
line drawn on the free liquid surface at right
of the liquid rise to the surface. For this,
angles to the lime and in the plane of liquid
work is done against the downward
surface is defined as surface tension.
cohesive force.
 For floating needle 2𝑇ℓ sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔
 Required excess force for lift
 Wire 𝐹𝑒𝑥 − 2𝑇ℓ
 Hollow disc 𝐹𝑒𝑥 = 3𝜋𝑇(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
 For ring 𝐹𝑒𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑇
 One Cohesive Force: Those factors  Circular disc 𝑓𝑒𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑇
which increase the cohesive force  Square frame 𝐹𝑒𝑥 = 8𝑎𝑇
between molecules increase the surface  Square plate 𝐹𝑒𝑥 = 4𝑎𝑇
tension and those which decrease the  Work = surface energy = 𝑇∆𝐴
cohesive force between molecules  Liquid drop 𝑊 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑇
decrease the surface tension.  Soap bubble 𝑊 = 8𝜋𝑟 2 𝑇
 On Impurities: If the impurity is  Splitting of bigger drop into smaller
completely soluble then on mixing it in droples 𝑅 = 𝑛1/3 𝑟
the liquid, its surface tension increases. Work done = Change in suface energy
e.g., on dissolving ionic salts in small
1 1
quantities in a liquid, its surface tension = 4𝜋𝑅 3 𝑇 ( = ) = 4𝜋𝑅 2 𝑇(𝑛1/3 − 1)
increases. If the impurity is partially 𝑟 𝑅
soluble in a liquid then its surface  Excess pressure 𝑃𝑒𝑥 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
tension decreases because adhesive 2𝑇
 In liquid drop: 𝑝𝑒𝑥 =
force between insoluble impurity 𝑅
4𝑇
molecules and liquid molecules  In soap bubble: 𝑃𝑒𝑥 = 𝑅
decreases cohesive force effectively,
e.g.
(a) On mixing detergent in water, its
surface tension decreases.
(b) Surface tension of water is more than
(alcohol + water) mixture. The angle enclosed between the tangent plane
 On Temperature: On increasing at the liquid surface and the tangent plane at the
temperature surface tension decreases. solid surface at the point of contact inside the
At critical temperature and boiling liquid id defined as the angle of contact.
point it becomes zero. The angle of contact depends the nature of the
Note: Surface tension of water is solid and liquid in contact.
maximum at 4°C.
 On Contamination: The dust particles  Angle of contact 𝜃 < 90° ⇒ concave
or lubricating materials on the liquid shape, Liquid rise up
surface decreases it surface tension. Angle of contact 𝜃 > 90° ⇒ convex
 On Electrification: The surface shape, Liquid falls
tension of a liquid decreases due to Angle of contact 𝜃 = 90° ⇒ plane
electrification because a force starts shape, Liquid neither rise nor falls
acting due to it in the outward direction  Effect of Temperature on angle of
normal to the free surface of liquid. contact
On increasing temperature surface
tension decreases, thus cos 𝜃𝑐 increases

Page | 51
 1 𝑁×𝑠
[∵ cos 𝜃𝑐 ∝ 𝑇] and 𝜃𝑐 decrease. So im  SI UNITY: 𝑚2 or deca poise
increasing temperature, 𝜃𝑐 decreases.  CGS UNITS: dyne−𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 or poise
 Effect of Impurities on angle of (1 depcapoise = 10 poise)
contact
(a) Solute impurities increase surface
tension, so cos 𝜃 decreases and angle of
contact 𝜃𝑐 increases.
(b) Partially solute impurities decrease On Temperature of Fluid
surface tension, so angle of contact 𝜃𝑐
decreases. (a) Since cohesive forces decrease with
increase in temperature as increase in
 Effect of Water Proofing Agent K.E. Therefore with the rise in
Angle of contact increases due to water temperature, the viscosity if liquid
proofing agent. It gets converted acute decreases.
to obtuse angle.
2𝑇 cos 𝜃 (b) The viscosity of gases is the result of
 Capillary rise ℎ = 𝑟𝜌𝑔
diffusion of gas molecules from one
1
 Zurin’s law ℎ ∝ 𝑟 moving layer to other moving layer.
 The height ‘h’ is measured from the Now with increases in temperature, the
bottom of the meniscus. However, rate if diffusion increases. So, the
there exist some liquid above this line viscosity also increases. Thus, the
also. If correction of this is applied then viscosity of gases increases with the
the formula will be rise of temperature.
1
𝑟𝜌𝑔 [ℎ + 3 𝑟] On Pressure of Fluid
𝑇=
2 cos 𝜃 (a) The viscosity of liquid increases with
 When two soap bubbles are in contact the increase of pressure.
then radius of curvature of the common
surface (b) The viscosity of gases is partially
𝑟1 𝑟2 independent of pressure.
𝑟= (𝑟 > 𝑟2 )
𝑟1 − 𝑟2 1
On Nature of Fluid
 When two soap bubbles are combining
in vacuum and at constant temperature  Poiseuillel’s formula
and form a new bubble then radius of 𝑑𝑉 𝜋𝑝𝑟 4
new bubble 𝑄= =
𝑑𝑡 8𝜂𝐿
𝑟 = √𝑟12 + 𝑟22  Viscous force 𝐹𝑣 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
 Terminal velocity
 Force required to separate two plates
2𝐴𝑇 2 𝑟 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎)𝑔
𝐹= 𝑑 𝑣𝑇 = ⇒ 𝑣𝑇 ∝ 𝑟 2
𝜂
 Reynolds number
𝜌𝑣𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜂
𝑅𝑒 < 1000 laminar flow,
Newton’s law of viscosity: 𝑅𝑒 > 2000 turbulent flows
∆𝑣𝑥
𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴
∆𝑦

Page | 52
 Name of Symbol Lower Number
Upper
the scale for fixed of
fixed
each point divisions
point
degree (LFP) on the
(UFP)
scale
Celsius °𝐶 0°𝐶 100°𝐶 100
Fahrenheit °F 32°F 212°F 180
Kelvin K 273.15K 373.15K 100

C−0 F − 32 K − 273.15 X − LFP ∆C ∆F ∆K ∆X

= = = ⇒ = = =
100 − 0 212 − 32 373.15 − 273.15 UFP − LFP 100 180 100 UFP − LFP
θ−0 X−X°
 Old thermometry: = [two fixed point – ice & steam points] where X is
100−0 X100 −X°
thermometric property i.e. length, resistance etc.
T−0 X
 Modern thermometry: = [Only one reference point – triple point of water is
273.16−0 Xtr
chosen]

It is due to asymmetry in potential energy

curve.

In solids → Areal expansion A = A° (1 +

β∆T)

In solids → Linear expansion ℓ = ℓ° (1 +

𝛼∆T)
In solids, liquid and gases → Volume
expansion
V = V° (1γ∆T)

Page | 53
 In solids → Areal expansion A = A° (1 +
β∆T)

[For isotropic solids: α: β: γ = 1: 2: 3]

Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may
be imagined as a photographic enlargement. In solids, liquid and gases → Volume
For anisotropic materials βxy = 𝛼X + expansion
αy anⅆ γ = αX + αy + αz V = V° (1γ∆T)
T
If 𝛼 is variable: ∆ℓ = ∫T 2 ℓ0 αⅆT
1

It is due to asymmetry in potential energy

curve.

[For isotropic solids: α: β: γ = 1: 2: 3]

Thermal expansion of an isotropic object may
be imagined as a photographic enlargement.
For anisotropic materials βxy = 𝛼X +
αy anⅆ γ = αX + αy + αz
In solids → Linear expansion ℓ = ℓ° (1 + T
𝛼∆T) If 𝛼 is variable: ∆ℓ = ∫T 2 ℓ0 αⅆT
1

I. Bi – metallic strip (used as thermostat II. Simple pendulum:

or auto – cut in electric heating circuits)
1
ℓ ∆T 1 ∆ℓ
T = 2π√g ⇒ T ∝ ℓ2 ⇒ T
=2 ℓ

Fractional change in time period =

∆T 1
T
= 2 α∆θ

III. Scale reading: Due to linear expansion

/ contraction, scale reading will be
lesser / more than actual value.

Page | 54
 If temperature ↑ then actual value = ∆ℓ
Thermal strain = ℓ
= α∆θ
scale reading (1 + α∆θ)
F/A
IV. Thermal stress As Young’s modulus Y = ∆ℓ/ℓ ;

So thermal stress = YAα∆θ

(Only volume expansion)

Apparent increase in volume
γa =
Initial volume × Temperature rise
real increse in volume
γr =
initial volume × temperature rise
γr = γa + γvessel
Increase in height of liquid in tube when bulb
was initially completely filled.
apparent change
in volume of liquiⅆ
h=
area of tube
V0 (γL − 3α)∆T
=
A0 (1 + 2α)∆T
Change in volume of liquid w.r.t. vessel
Anomalous expansion of water:
∆V = V0 (γr − 3α)∆T
In the range 0°C to 4 °C water contract on
Expansion in enclosed volume
heating and expands on cooling. At 4 °C →
density is maximum.

 Coefficient of volume expansion:  Rubber

∆V 1 contract on heating
γv = V ∆T = T
0 because in rubber as
[PV = nRT at constant pressure V ∝ temperature
∆V ∆T
T ⇒ V = T] increases, the
 Coefficient of pressure expansion amplitude of
∆P 1 transverse vibrations
γP = P ∆T = T
0 increases more than the amplitude of
 Liquids usually expand more than longitudinal vibrations.
solids on heating because the
intermolecular forces in liquids are
weaker than in solids.

Page | 55
 Water expands both when heated or liquid to gas etc) is called latent heat of
cooled form 4 °C because volume of the body. Remember that phase
water at 4 °C is minimum. transformation is an isothermal (i.e.
 In cold countries, water pipes temperature = constant) change.
sometimes burst, because water  Principle of calorimetry:
expands on freezing. Heat lost = heat gained
 Temperature of core of Sum is 107 K For temperature change Q = ms∆T,
while of surface 6000 K. Normal For phase change Q = mL
temperature of human body is 310.15 K  Heating curve:
(37°C or 98.6°F). If to a given mass (m) of a solid, heat is
 NTP → temperature= 273.15 supplied at constant rate (Q) and a
(0°C or 32 °F) graph is plotted between temperature
and time, the graph is called heating
curve.

1 cal = 4.186 J = 4.2 J

Q
 Thermal capacity of a body = ∆T
Amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of given body by 1 °C (or 1
1K). Specific heat ∝ (or thermal
Slope of curve
Q
 Specific heat capacity = m∆T (m = capacity)
mass) Latent heat ∝ length of horizontal line.
Amount of heat required of raise the
temperature of unit mass of a body  Specific heat
through 1 °C (or 1K) of a body may be
Q greater than its
 Molar heat capacity = n∆T (n =
thermal capacity as
number of moles) mass of the body
 Water equivalent: If thermal capacity may be less than
of a body is expressed in terms of mass unity.
of water, it is called water equivalent.  The steam at
Water equivalent of a body is the mass 100°C causes more severe burn to
of water which when given same
human body than the water at 100°C
amount of heat as to the body, changes
because steam has greater internal
the temperature of water through same
energy then water due to latent heat of
range as that of the body.
vaporization.
Therefore, water equivalent of a body
 Heat is energy in transit which is
is the quantity of water, whose heat
transferred from hot body to cold body.
capacity is the same as the heat
capacity of the body.  One calorie is then amount of heat
Water equivalent of the body, required to raise then temperature of
W = mass of body × one gram of water through 1°C (more
specific heat of body precisely 14.5°C to 15.5°C).
(specific heat of water)  Clausins & Clapeyron equation (effect
Unit of water equivalent is g or kg. of pressure on boiling point of liquid &
 Latent Heat (Hidden heat): The melting point of solids related with
amount of heat that has to supplied t (or dP L
latent heat) dT = T(V −V )
removed from) a body for its complete 2 1

change of state (from solid to liquid,

Page | 56
 In conduction, heat is transferred from one
point to another without the actual motion of
heated particles.
In the process of convection, the heated
particles of matter actually move. In radiation,
intervening medium is not affected and heat is
transferred without any material medium.
Conduction Convection Radiation
Heat Transfer due to Temperature Heat transfer due to density Heat transfer without any
difference difference medium
Due to free electron or vibration Actual motion of particles Electromagnetic radiation
motion of molecules
Heat transfer in solid body (in Heat transfer in fluids All
mercury also) (Liquid + gas)
Slow process Slow process Fast process (3 × 108 m/
sec)
Irregular path Irregular path Straight line (like light)

Conduction:- ∑ℓ ∑KA
K +eq = ; K eq =
∑ℓ ∑A
K

Time taken by ice to grow a thickness from x1

ρL
Rate of heat flow to x2 : t = 2kθ (x22 − x12 )

ⅆQ ⅆT Q KA(T1 − T2 ) [K = thermal conductivity if ice, ρ = density

= −KA or = of ice]
ⅆt ⅆx t ℓ
ℓ
Thermal resistance R H =
KA

Due to incident radiation on the surface of a

body following phenomena occur by which the
radiation is divided into three parts.
(a) Reflection (b) Absorption

Page | 57
(c) Transmission

The ratio of spectral emissive power to spectral

absorptive power is same for all surfaces at the
same temperature and is equal to the emissive
power of a perfectly black body at that
temperature.
From energy conservation
eλ E E eλ
Qr Qa Qt = = ⇒ = E ⇒ eλ ∝ a_λ
Q = Qr + Qa + Qt ⇒ + + =1 aλ A 1 aλ
Q Q Q
Therefore, a good absorber is a good emitter
⇒r+a+t=1
Qr
 Reflective Coefficient: r = Q
Q
 Absorptive Coefficient: a = Qa
Q
 Transmittive Coefficient: t = t
Q A body which absorbs all the radiations
r = 1 anⅆ a = 0, t = 0 ⇒ Perfect incident on it is called a perfectly black body.
reflector
a = 1 anⅆ r = 0, t = 0 ⇒ Ideal
absorber (ideal back body)
t = 1 anⅆ a = 0, r = 0 ⇒ Perfect
transmitter (diathermanous)
Q
Reflection power (r) = [ Qr × 100] % Absorptive power of a surface is defined as the
Q ratio of the radiant energy absorbed by it in a
Absorption power (a) = [ Qa ×
given time to the total radiant energy incident
100] % on it in the same time. For ideal black body,
Q absorptive power = 1
Transmission power (t) = [ Qt ×] %

For a given surface it is defined as the radiant

Radiated energy emitted by a perfect black energy emitted per second per unit area of the
body per unit area/sec E = σT 4 surface.

For a general body E = σer T 4 [where 0 ≤ er ≤

1]

A body is simultaneously emitting radiations to

its surrounding and absorbing radiations from
the surroundings. If surrounding has
temperature T0 then Enet = er σ(T 4 − T04 )
If temperature difference is small Rate of
cooling

Page | 58
ⅆθ of atmosphere) is called solar constant.
∝ (θ − θ0 ) ⇒ θ = θ0 + (θ1 − θ0 )ekt
ⅆt
[where k = constant]
By taking log both sides, we have
𝜃 − 𝜃0
log 𝑒 ( ) = −𝑘𝑡
𝜃1 − 𝜃0
⇒ log e (θ − θ0 ) = log e (θ1 − θ0 ) − kt
P 4πR2s σT 4 Rs 2 4
S= = = σ ( ) T
4πr 2 4πr 2 r
where R s = radius of sun
r = average distance between sun and earth
when a body cools from 𝜃1 to 𝜃2 time ‘t’ in a
Note: S = 2 Cal cm−2 min = 1.4kWm−2
surrounding of temperature 𝜃0 then
θ1 −θ2 θ1 +θ2
T = temperature of sun ≈ 5800
= k[ − θ0 ] [where k = constant]
t 2
 Stainless steel
cooking pans are
preferred with
extra copper
bottom because
thermal
Product of the wavelength λm of most intense conductivity of
radiation emitted by a black body and absolute copper is more
temperature of the black body is a constant than steel.
λm T = b = 2.89 × 10 −3
mK = Wein’s  Two layers of cloth of same thickness
constant provide warmer covering than a single
layer of cloth of double the thickness
because air (which is better insulator of
heat) is trapped between them.
 Animals curl into a ball when they feel
very cold to reduce the surface area of
the body.
 Water cannot be boiled inside a satellite
by convection because in
∞ weightlessness conditions, natural
Area under Eλ − λ graph = ∫0 Eλ ⅆλ = E =
movement of heated fluid is not
σT 4
possible.
 Metals have high thermal conductivity
because metals have free electrons.
 Rough and dark (i.e. black) surfaces are
good absorber while shining and
smooth surfaces are good reflectors of
The Sun emits radiant energy continuously in
heat radiations.
space of which an insignificant part reaches the
Earth. The solar radiant energy received per  Heat radiation are invisible and like
unit area per unit time by a black surface held light, ravel in straight lines, cast
at right angles to the Sun's rays and placed at shadow, affect photographic plate and
the mean distance of the Earth (in the absence can be reflected by mirrors and
refracted by lenses.

Page | 59
It related the macroscopic properties of gases to the microscopic properties of gas molecules.

molecules is ineffective due to

extremely small masses and very high
speed of molecules.

 Every gas consists of extremely small

particles known as molecules. The
molecules of a given gas are all
identical but are different than those  Molecules constantly collide with the
another gas. walls of container due to which their
momentum changes. This change in
 The molecules of a gas are identical,
momentum is transferred to the walls of
spherical, spherical rigid and perfectly
the container. Consequently pressure is
elastic point masses.
exerted by gas molecules on the walls
 The size is negligible in comparison to
of container.
inter molecular distance (10−9 m).

 The density of gas is constant at all

 Molecules of a gas keep on moving points of the container.
randomly in of molecules in all
possible direction with all possible
velocities.
 The speed of gas molecules lie between
zero and infinity (very high speed).
 The number of molecules moving with 1 2
PV = mNvms
most probable speed is maximum. 3
[m = mass of molecule, N = no. of molecules]

 Themselves as well as with the walls of

containing vessel. These, collision are
perfectly elastic. (i.e. the total energy μRT μNA kT N
PV = μRT ⇒ P = = ( ) kT
before collision = total energy after the V V V
collision.) = nkT
P RT kT
⇒ = =
ρ Mw m

 No attractive or repulsive force acts

between gas molecules.
 Gravitational attraction among the  Boyle's law: For a given mass at

Page | 60
 1 Temperature of an ideal gas is proportional to
constant temperature. V ∝ P
the average KE of molecules,
 Charles' law: For a given mass at
constant pressure V ∝ T 1 2
1 2
 Gay-Lussac's law: For a given mass at PV = mNVms & Pv = μRT ⇒ mvms
2 2
constant volume P ∝ T 3
 Avogadro's law: If P,V & T are same = kT
2
then no of molecules N1 = N2
 Graham's law: At constant P and T,
1
Rate of diffusion ∝ ρ
√
 Dalton's law: P = P1 + P2 +. … …
Total pressure =Sum of partial Number of minimum coordinates required to
pressures specify the dynamical state of a system.
For monoatomic gas (He, Ar etc)
𝑓 = 3 (only translational)
For diatomic gas (H, O, etc) 𝑓 = 5 (3
translational +2 rotational)
μ2 a
(P + 2 ) (v − μb) = μRT where 𝑎 & 𝑏 are At higher temperature, diatomic molecules
v
vander Waal’s constant and depend on the have two additional degree of freedom due to
nature of gas. vibrational motion (one for KE + one for PE)
At higher temperature diatomic gas has 𝑓 = 7

The maximum temperature below which a gas

can be liquefied by pressure alone.
 Critical volume Vc = 3b Kinetic energy associated with each degree of
a
 Critical pressure Pc = 2 freedom of particles of an ideal gas equal to
27b
Pc Vc 3 1
 Note: For a real gas RTc
=8 2
kT

 Average KE of a particle having f

degree of
f
freedom = 2 kT
3
 Translational KE of a molecule = 2 kT
3
3RT 3kT 2RT  Translational KE of a = 2 RT
Vms = √ =√ ; vmp = √
Mw m Mw  Internal energy of an ideal gas: U =
f
μRT
2kT 2
=√
m

8RT 8kT
vav = √ =√
πMw πm
dQ
 Molar specific heat of a gas C = μRT
dQ
 Cv = (μdT) = ⅆU/μⅆT
V=constant

Page | 61
  Cp( dQ ) = Cv +  Kinetic
μdT dP=0 energy per unit
R ←Mayer′ s equation volume
Ev =
1 mN 2 3
( ) vms = 2 P
2 V
 At absolute
zero, the motion of
all molecules of the gas stops.
 At higher temperature and low pressure
or at higher temperature and low
density, a real gas behaves as an ideal
gas.
 For any general process
(a) Internal energy change ∆U = nCv 𝑑𝑇
(b) Heat supplied to a gas Q = nCⅆT
R
PV X = constant is C = Cv +
1−x
(c) Work done for any process W − P∆V
It can be calculated as area under 𝑃 −
𝑉 curve
nR
(d) Work done Q − ∆U = ⅆT
Average distance between two consecutive 1−x
For any polytropic process PV x=
collisions
constant
1
λm =
√2πⅆ2 n
where d = diameter of molecule, n = molecular
N
density = V
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If
two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they are also
in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 First law of thermodynamics: Heat
supplied (Q) to a system is equal to
algebraic sum of change in internal
μ1 MW1 +μ2 MW2 +⋯ energy (∆U) of the system and
Molecular weight: MWmix = μ1 +μ2 +⋯ mechanical work (W) done by the
system
Specific heat at constant V: Cvmix = Q = W + ∆U[Hwere W = ∫ PⅆV ; ∆U
μ1 Cv1 +μ2 Cv2 +⋯
= nCv ∆T]
μ1 +μ2 +⋯
For differential change
Specific heat at constant P: CPmix =
μ1 CP1 +μ2 CP2 +⋯
μ1 +μ2

CPmix μ1 CP1 + μ2 CP2 + ⋯

γmix = =
CVmix μ1 Cv1 + μ2 CV2 + ⋯  Sign Convention
Heat absorbed by the system →
positive
Heat rejected by the system → negative
Increase in internal energy
(i.e. rise in temperature) → positive

Page | 62
 Decrease in internal energy W Q1 − Q 2 Q2
= = =1−
Q1 Q1 Q1
(i.e. fall in temperature) → negative
For carnot cycle
Work done by the system → positive
Q 2 T2 Q2 T2
Work done by the system → negative = so η = 1 − =1
Q1 T1 Q1 T1
 For cyclic process ∆U = 0 ⇒ Q = W
For refrigerator or heat pump
 For isochoric process
V = constant ⇒ P ∝ T & W = 0
Q = ∆U = μCv ∆T
 For isochoric process
P = constant ⇒ V ∝ T
Q = μCP ∆T, ∆U = μCv ∆T
W = P(V2 − V1 ) = μR∆T Coefficient of performance
 For adiabatic process Q2 Q2 T2
PV γ = constant or T γ P1−γ =constant β= = =
W Q1 − Q 2 T1 − T2
or TV γ−1 = constant
In this process Q = 0 and ∆P
Bulk modulus of gases: B = ∆V
W = −∆U = μCv (T2 − T2 ) = −
V
P1 V1 −p2 V2
γ−1 Isothermal bulk modulus of elasticity,
 For Isothermal Process ∂P
T = constant or ∆T = 0 ⇒ PV BAD = −V ( )
∂V T=constant
= constant
In this process ∆U = μCv ∆T = 0 Adiabatic bulk modulus of elasticity,
V P ∂P
So, Q = w = μRT ℓn ( 2 ) = μRTℓn ( 1 )
V1 P2 BAD = −γV ( ) ⇒ BAD = γBIT
∂V
 For any general polytropic process
 Work done is
PV x = constant
R least for
 Molar heat capacity C = Cv + 1−x monoatomic gas
 Work done by gas (adiabatic process)
nR(T1 − T2 ) (P1 V1 − P2 V2 ) in shown
W= = expansion.
x−1 x−1
 Slope of P-V diagram (also known as
dP
indicator diagram at any point dV =
P
−x v)

 Air quickly leaking out of a balloon

becomes cooler as the leaking air
undergoes adiabatic expansion.
 First law of thermodynamics does not
forbid flow of heat from lower
temperature to higher temperature.
Work ⅆone by working substance  First law of thermodynamics allows
η=
Heat sup plieⅆ many processes which actually don't
happen.

Page | 63
 Entropy is an extensive property of a
thermodynamic system. The entropy of an
system is a measure of the amount of energy
which is unavailable to do work, that is also
usually considered to be a measure of the
It is a hypothetical engine with maximum system's disorder.
possible efficiency Change in entropy
∫ ⅆθ
∆S =
Process 1→2 & 3→4 are isothermal T
Process 2→3 & 4→1are adiabatic
 The second law of thermodynamics
states that the entropy of an isolated
system never decreases.

The entropy of the universe increases in all real

processes

Page | 64
 Chapter 13
OSCILLATIONS

and for) about a fixed point after regular interval

of time.
The fixed point about which the body oscillated
is called mean position or equilibrium position.
Any motion which repeats itself after regular
interval of time (i.e. time period) is called Example:
periodic motion or harmonic motion.
(i) Vibration of the wire of ‘Sitaar’.
Example:
(ii) Oscillation of the mass suspended from
(i) Motion of planets around the sun. spring.
(ii) Motion of the pendulum of wall clock

Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form of

The motion of body is said to be oscillatory or vibratory or oscillatory motion.
vibratory motion if it moves back and forth (to

 Mean Position taken to complete one oscillation or

The point at which the restoring force on vibration is also defined as time period.
2𝜋 1
the particle is zero and potential energy is It is given by 𝑇 = = where 𝜔 is
𝜔 𝑛
minimum, is known as its mean position. angular frequency and n is frequency.
 Restoring Force  One oscillation or One vibration
The force acting on the particle which When a particle goes on one side from
tends to bring the particle towards its mean position and returns back and then
mean position, is known as restoring it goes to other side and again returns
force. back to mean position, then this process
Restoring force always acts in a direction is known as one oscillation.
opposite to that of displacement.
Displacement is measured from the mean
position.
 Amplitude
The maximum (positive or negative)
value of displacement of particle from
mean position is defined as amplitude.
 Time period (T)
The minimum time after which the  Frequency (n or f)
particle keeps on repeating its motion is
known as time period. The smallest time
 The number of oscillations per second is 𝑑2 𝑥
 Acceleration 𝑎= 𝑑𝑡 2
=
defined as frequency. It given by 𝑛 = 2 2
1 𝜔 −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = −𝜔 𝑥
= 2𝜋 𝑑2 𝜃
𝑇
 Angular Acceleration =
 Phase 2 2
𝑑𝑡 2
Phase of a vibrating particle at any instant −𝜃0 𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = −𝜔 𝜃
1
is the state of the vibrating particle  Kinetic energy 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 =
regarding its displacement and direction 1
𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 cos2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
of vibration at that particular instant. 2
1
It is the equation 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙),  Potential energy 𝑈 = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 =
(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) is the phase of the particle. 1
𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
The phase angle at time 𝑡 = 0 is known 2
1
as initial phase of epoch.  Total energy 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 =
2
The difference of total phase angles of constant
two particles executing SHM with
respect to the mean position is known as
phase difference.
Two vibrating particles are said to be in
same phase if the phase difference
between them is an even multiple of 𝜋,
i.e. 𝛥𝜙 = 2𝑛𝜋 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,
………
Two vibrating particle are said to be in
opposite phase if the phase difference
between them is an odd multiple of 𝜋 i.e., Note:
𝛥𝜙 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…..
 Angular frequency (𝝎) (i) Total energy of a particle in SHM is
The rate of change of phase of a particle same at all instant and at all
with respect to time is defined as its displacement.
𝑘
(ii) Total energy depends upon mass,
angular frequency. 𝜔 = √𝑚 amplitude and frequency of vibration
of the particle executing S.H.M.
 For linear SHM
𝑑2𝑥  Average energy in SHM
(𝐹 ∝ −𝑥): 𝐹 = 𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥 = (i) The time average of P.E. and K.E.
𝑑𝑡
𝑘 over one cycle is
−𝑚𝜔2 𝑥 where 𝜔 = √𝑚
1 1
 For linear SHM (𝝉 ∝ −𝜽 ): (a) < 𝐾 >𝑡 4 𝑘𝐴2 (b) < 𝑃𝐸 >𝑡 = 4 𝑘𝐴2

𝑑2 𝜃 1
𝜏 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝐼𝛼 = −𝑘𝜃 = −𝑚𝜔2 𝜃 where (c) < 𝑇𝐸 >𝑡 = 2 𝑘𝐴2 + 𝑈0
𝑘 (ii) The position average of P.E. and
𝜔 = √𝑚
K.E. between 𝑥 = −𝐴 to 𝑥 = 𝐴
 Displacement 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), 1 1
(a) < 𝐾 >𝑥 3 𝑘𝐴2 (b) < 𝑃𝐸 >𝑥 = 3 𝑘𝐴2
 Angular displacement 𝜃=
𝜃0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) 1
𝑑𝑥 (c) < 𝑇𝐸 >𝑥 = 2 𝑘𝐴2 + 𝑈0
 Velocity 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) =
𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2  Differential equation of SHM
𝑑𝜃 𝑑2 𝑥
 Angular Velocity = 𝜃0 𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 + o Linear SHM : + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝜃
𝜙) o Angular SMH : 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝜔2 𝜃 = 0
  Spring block system 𝑚
𝑚 + 3𝑠
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
 Series combination of springs
𝑚 1 1 1 1
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ where = + +
𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3

 Parallel combination of springs


𝑚 𝑚
where 𝜇 = reduced mass = 𝑚 1+𝑚2
1 2

 When spring mass is not negligible:

𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑘 where 𝑘𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3
𝑒𝑓𝑓

∑ 𝑓𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
−𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2

 The oscillations of a particle with

fundamental frequency under the
influence of restoring force are defined as
free oscillations.

This is differential equation of damped

(i) The oscillations in which amplitude oscillation, solution of this equation is given by
decreases gradually with the passage of
𝑏
time are called damped oscillations. 𝑥 = 𝐴0 𝑒
(−
2𝑚
)𝑡
cos(𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + 𝛷)
(ii) The restarting force can be expressed as
𝐹⃗ = −𝑏𝑣⃗ (where b is a constant called Amplitude (A) =𝐴0 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡/2𝑚
the damping coefficient) and restoring
Where angular frequency of oscillation is
force on the system is – 𝑘𝑥, we can write
Newton’s second law as
 𝑘 𝑏 2 𝑏 2
ω′ = √𝑚 − (2𝑚) = √𝜔 2 − (2𝑚)

𝑘
Where 𝜔 = √𝑚 represents the angular frequency
in the absence of retarding force (the undamped
oscillator) and is called natural frequency.
(iii)Mechanical energy of undamped Graph of amplitude versus frequency for a
1
oscillator is 2
𝑘𝐴2
. For a damped damped oscillator when a periodic driving force
oscillator amplitude is not constant but is present. When the frequency of the driving
depend on time, so total energy is force equals the nature frequency 𝜔, resonance
1 2 occurs.
𝐸(𝑡) = 2 𝑘(𝐴𝑒 −𝑏𝑡/2𝑚 ) =
1 𝑏𝑡 After solving 𝑥 = 𝐴′ cos (𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙)
2
𝑘𝐴2 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡/𝑚
= 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑚
𝐹0
A & 𝐸0 → amplitude & energy at 𝑡 = 0 where 𝐴′ =
2 −𝜔2 +( 2 𝑏𝜔𝑑 2
𝑚√(𝜔𝑑 ) )
𝑚

𝑘
(𝜔 is natural frequency, 𝜔 = √𝑚)

(i) For small damping, the amplitude is large

when the frequency of the driving force
is near the natural frequency of
(i) All free oscillations eventually die out oscillation (𝜔𝑑 ≈ 𝜔) . The increase in
because of every present damping force, amplitude near the natural frequency is
However, an external agency can called resonance, & the natural frequency
maintain these oscillations. These are 𝜔 is also called the resonance frequency
called forced or driven oscillations. of the system.
(ii) Suppose an external force 𝐹(𝑡) of (ii) In the state of resonance, there occurs
amplitude F0 that varies periodically with maximum transfer of energy from the
time is applied to a damped oscillator. driver to the driven.
Such a force is 𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡  SHM is
The equation of particle under combined the projection of
force is uniform circular
𝑚𝑎(𝑡) = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 + 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 motion along
𝑚𝑑2 𝑥 𝑏𝑑𝑥 one of the
+ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 diameter of the
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
circle.
 The
periodic time of
a hard spring is less as compared to that
of a soft spring because the spring
constant is large for hard spring.
 For a system executing SHM, the Spring cut into two parts:
mechanical energy remains constant.
 Maximum kinetic energy of a particle in
SHM may be greater than mechanical
energy as potential energy of a system
𝑙1 𝑚 𝑚 𝑛
may be negative. Here = 𝑙1 = ( ) 𝑙, 𝑙2 =( )𝑙
𝑙2 𝑛 𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
 The frequency of oscillation of potential
energy and kinetic energy is twice as that But 𝑘𝑙 = 𝑘1 𝑙1 = 𝑘2 𝑙2 ⇒ 𝑘1 =
of displacement or velocity or (𝑚+𝑛) (𝑚+𝑛)
𝑚
𝑘; 𝑘2 = 𝑛
𝑘
acceleration of a particle executing
S.H.M.
 Chapter 14
WAVE MOTION & DEVELOPERS
EFFECT

A wave is a disturbance that propagates in space, transports energy and momentum from one point to
another without the transport of matter.

 General equation of wave

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜙)
If both 𝜔𝑡 & 𝑘𝑥 have same sign then
wave moving towards –ve direction
2𝜋
where 𝑘 = 𝜆 wave propagation constant
𝜕2 𝑦 1 𝜕2 𝑦
 Differential equation : 𝜕𝑥 2 = 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥
Wave velocity (phase velocity) 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 =
𝜔 𝑑𝑥 𝜔
∵ 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 =constant ⇒ =
𝑘 𝑑𝑡 𝑘
𝑑𝑦
 Particle Velocity 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑑𝑡
=
𝐴𝜔 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑝 = −𝑣 × 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −𝑣 ( )
𝑑𝑥
 A mechanical wave will be 𝜕2 𝑦
transverse or longitudinal depending  Particle acceleration : 𝑎𝑝 = 𝜕𝑡 2 =
on the nature of medium and mode of −𝜔2 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) = −𝜔2 𝑦
excitation.
For particle 1 : 𝑣𝑝 ↓ and 𝑎𝑝 ↓
 I strings, mechanical waves are
always transverse. For particle 2 : 𝑣𝑝 ↑ and 𝑎𝑝 ↓
 In gases and liquids, mechanical
waves are always longitudinal For particle 3 :𝑣𝑝 ↑ and 𝑎𝑝 ↑
because fluids cannot sustain shear.
 Partially transverse waves are For particle 4 : 𝑣𝑝 ↓ and 𝑎𝑝 ↑
possible on a liquid surface because
 Relation between phase difference , path
surface tension provide some rigidity
& time difference
on a liquid surface. These waves are
called as ripples as they are
combination of transverse &
longitudinal.
 In solids mechanical waves (may be
sound) can be either transverse or
longitudinal depending on the mode
of excitation.
 Inn longitudinal wave motion,
oscillatory motion of the medium
particles produce regions of 𝐾𝐸 1 ∆𝑚
= ( ) 𝑣2
compression (high pressure) and 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 2 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝜌
rarefaction (low pressure).
 1 1
= 𝜌𝑣𝜌2 = 𝜌𝜔2 𝐴2 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
2 2
𝑃𝐸 1 𝑑𝑦 2 1
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
= 2 𝜌𝑣 2 (𝑑𝑥 ) = 2 𝜌𝜔2 𝐴2 cos2 (𝜔𝑡 −
𝑘𝑥)  Spherical wave front (source → point
source)
𝑇𝐸
= 𝜌𝜔2 𝐴2 cos2(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1
Energy density 𝑢 = 2 𝜌𝜔2 𝐴2

(i.e., Average total energy/volume)

 Cylindrical wave font (source → linear
Power: 𝑃 = (energy density)(volume/time)
source)
1
𝑃 = ( 𝜌𝜔2 𝐴2 ) (𝑆𝑣)
2
[where S = Area of cross section] (V = wave
velocity)
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 1
Intensity: 𝐼 = area of cross section = 2 𝜌𝜔2 𝐴2 𝑣

Speed of transverse wave on string :

 Plane wave front (source → point/linear
𝑇
𝑣= √𝜇 where 𝜇 = mass/length and source at very large distance)

T = tension in the string

 A wave can be
represented by
function 𝑦=
𝑓(𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡)
because it satisfy the
differential equation
𝜕2 𝑦 1 𝜕2 𝑦
= 𝑣 2 ( 𝜕𝑡 2 )
𝜕𝑥 2
𝜔
where 𝑣 = 𝑘 .
 A pulse whose wave function is given by
4
𝑦 = [(2𝑥+5𝑡)2 +2] Propagates in – 𝑥
𝐼
direction as this Wave function is of the  Due to point source 𝐼 =∝ 𝑟2
form 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) which represent a 𝐴
𝑦(𝑟, 𝑡) = sin(𝜔 − 𝑘⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)
wave traveling in – 𝑥 direction. 𝑟
1
Wave speed = co-eff. of 𝑡/co-eff. of 𝑥  Due to cylindrical source 𝐼 =∝ 𝑟
 Longitudinal waves can be produced in 𝐴
solids, liquids and gases because bulk 𝑦(𝑟, 𝑡) = sin(𝜔 − 𝑘⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)
√𝑟
modulus of elasticity in present in all
 Due to plane source 𝐼 = constant
three.
𝑦(𝑟, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔 − 𝑘⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)
  Amplitude of transmitted wave → 𝐴𝑡 =
2𝑣
(𝑣 +𝑣2 ) 𝐴𝑖
1 2
 If 𝑣2 > 𝑣1 i.e. medium-2 is rarer.
𝐴𝑟 > 0 ⇒ no phase change in
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) , 𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin(𝜔 − 𝑘𝑥 +
reflected wave
∅)
 If 𝑣2 < 𝑣1 i.e. medium-1 is rarer
 𝐴𝑟 < 0 ⇒ There is a phase change of 𝜋
in reflected wave.
 As 𝐴𝑡 , is always positive whatever be 𝑣1
& 𝑣2 the phase of transmitted wave
always remains unchanged. In case of
where 𝐴 = √𝐴12 + 𝐴22 + 2𝐴1 𝐴2 cos ∅0 reflection from a denser medium or rigid
support or fixed end, there is inversion of
𝐴2 sin ∅0 reflected wave i.e. phase difference of it
and tan ∅ =
𝐴−1+𝐴2 cos ∅0 between 𝜋 reflected and incident wave.
As 𝐼 =∝ 𝐴2  The transmitted wave is never inverted.

So 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos ∅0

 For constructive interference [Maximum

intensity] ∅0 = 2𝑛𝜋 or path difference
= 𝑚𝜋 where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3,…..
2
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 )
 For destructive interference [Minimum
Intensity] ∅0 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 or path
𝜆
difference = (2𝑛 + 1) where 𝑛 =
2
0, 1, 2, 3 …
2
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (√𝐼1 − √𝐼2 )
𝐼 −𝐼
 Degree of hearing = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛

When two sound waves of nearly equal (but not

exactly equal) frequencies travel in same
direction. at a given point due to their super
position, intensity alternatively increases and
decreases periodically. This periodic waxing and
waning of sound at a given position is called
beats.
Beat frequency = difference of frequencies of two
interfering waves

 The frequency of the wave remain

unchanged. Amplitude of reflected wave
 Amplitude of transmitted wave →𝐴𝑟 =
𝑣 −𝑣 When two waves of same frequency and
( 2 1 ) 𝐴1
𝑣1 +𝑣2 amplitude travel in opposite direction at same
speed, their superstition gives rise to a new type fixed at one end
of wave, called stationary waves or standing
waves. Formation of standing wave is possible
only in bounded medium.
Let two waves are 𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) ; 𝑦2 =
𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥) by principle of superposition
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 2𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 sin 𝜔𝑡 ← Equation of
stationary wave.
 As this equation satisfies the wave
equation
𝜕2 𝑦 1 𝜕2 𝑦
𝜕𝑥 2
= 𝜈2 𝜕𝑡 2 , it represent a wave.
 Its amplitude is not constant but varies
periodically with position.
 Nodes → amplitude is minimum :
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆
cos 𝑘𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = , , , ….
4 4 4
 Antinodes → amplitude is maximum:
𝜆 3𝜆
cos 𝑘𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, , 𝜆, , …
2 2
 The nodes divide the medium into
segments (loops). All the particles in a
segment vibrate in same phase but in
opposite phase with the particles in the
adjacent segment.
 As nodes are permanently at rest, so no
energy can be transmitted across them, Velocity of sound in a medium of elasticity E
i.e. energy of one region (segment) is and density 𝜌 is
confined in that region.

Fixed at bottom ends [fixed end →Node &

free end → Antinode]  Newton’s formula : Sound propagation
𝑃
is isothermal 𝐵 = 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑣 = √𝜌
 Laplace correction : Sound propagation
𝜆𝑃
is adiabatic 𝐵 = 𝜆𝑃 ⇒ 𝑣 = √
𝜌
 With rise in
temperature,
velocity of sound
increases due to
presence of water
in air.
 Pressure has no
effect on velocity
 of sound in a gas as long as temperature  Only add harmonics are present
remains constant.  Maximum possible wavelength = 4ℓ
 Frequency of mth overtone = (2𝑚 +
𝑣
1) 4ℓ

Open end organ pipe

A sound wave can be described either in terms

of the longitudinal displacement suffered by
the particles of the medium (called
displacement wave) or in terms of the excess
pressure generated due to compression and
rarefaction (called pressure wave).
 All harmonics are present
Displacement wave 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)  Maximum possible wavelength is 2ℓ
 Frequency of mth overtone = (𝑚 +
Pressure wave 𝑝 = 𝑝0 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) 𝑣
1) 2ℓ
where 𝑝0 = 𝐴𝐵𝑘 = 𝜌𝐴𝜈𝜔 End correction:
Note: As sound sensors (e.g. ear or mike) Due to finite momentum of air molecules in organ
detect pressure changes, description of sound pipes reflection takes place not exactly at open
as pressure wave is preferred over end but some what above it, so antinode is not
displacement wave. formed exactly at free end but slightly above it.
𝑣
In closed organ pipe 𝑓1 = 4(ℓ+𝑒)
 The pressure where 𝑒 = 0.6 𝑅 (R=radius of pipe)
wave is 900 out of 𝑣
phase w. r.t. in open organ pipe 𝑓1 = 2(ℓ+𝑒)
displacement
wave. i.e.
displacement will
be maximum when
pressure is
minimum and vice-versa.
 Intensity in terms of pressure amplitude.
𝑝02
𝐼=
2𝜌𝑣

Intensity of sound in decibels

𝐼
Stationary longitudinal waves closed end → Loudness 𝛽 = 10 log10 (𝐼 ) 𝑑𝐵 (decibel)
0
displacement node, open end→ displacement
antinode.
Closed end organ pipe Where 𝐼0 = theresold of human ear =
10−12 𝑊/𝑚2
  Loudness → Sensation received by the Observed frequency
ear due to intensity of sound
speed of sound wave w. r. t observer
 Pitch → Sensation received by the ear 𝑛′ =
due to frequency of sound observed wavelength
 Quality (or Timbre) → Sensation 𝑣 + 𝑣0 𝑣 + 𝑣0
received by the ear due to waveform of 𝑛′ = 𝑣 − 𝑣 = ( )𝑛
( 𝑠
) 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠
sound 𝑛
𝑣0 −𝑣𝑠
If 𝑣0 , 𝑣𝑠 < < < 𝑣 then 𝑛′ ≈ (1 + )𝑛
𝑛
speed of source
 Mach number = speed of sound
A stationary source emits wave fronts that
propagate with constant velocity with
constant separation between them and a
stationary observer encounters them at regular
constant intervals at which they were emitted
by the source.
A moving observer will encounter more or
lesser number of wavefronts depending on
whether he is approaching or receding the
source.
A source in motion will emit different wave
front at different places and therefore alter
wavelength i.e. separation between the
wavefronts.
The apparent change in frequency or pitch due
to relative motion of source and observer along
the line of sight is called Doppler Effect.
 Chapter 15
ELECTROSTATICS

Charge of a material body is that property due to which it interacts with other charges. There are two kinds
of charges positive and negative. S.I. Unit is coulomb. Charge is quantized, conserved and additive.

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Force between two charges = 𝐹⃗ = 4𝜋∈ 𝑟2
𝑟̂
0

If medium is present then multiply ∈0 with ∈1 where ∈𝑟 = relative permittivity

Note: The law is applicable only for static and point charges. Moving changes may result in magnetic
interaction. And if charges are spread on bodies then induction may change the charge distribution.

𝐹 ⃗
It is the net force of unit positive charge due to all other charges. 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑞 unit is N/C or V/m.

𝒌𝒒 (c) Uniformly charged non conducting

(a) Point charge 𝑬=
𝒓𝟐 sphere;
𝑘𝑞
(i) 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑟2 ; 𝑟 > 𝑅
𝑘𝑞
(ii) 𝐸𝐵 = 𝑅2 ; 𝑟 = 𝑅

(b) Charged conducting sphere:

𝑘𝑞𝑟
(iii) 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑅3 ; 𝑟 < 𝑅
𝑘𝑞 (d) Linear charge distribution of length
(i) 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑟2 ; 𝑟 > 𝑅 for point out ′𝓵′
side the sphere
𝑘𝑞 𝜎
(ii) 𝐸𝐵 = 2 = ; 𝑟 = 𝑅 for point
𝑅 ∈0
at surface of the sphere
(iii) 𝐸𝐴 = 0; 𝑟 < 𝑅 for point inside
the sphere.
 𝛼−𝛽
𝜆 sin ( 2 ) 2𝑘𝜆 𝛼−𝛽
𝐸𝑃 = = sin ( )
2𝜋 ∈0 𝑟 𝑟 2
2𝑘𝜆
For infinite line of charge : 𝐸⃗⃗𝑃 = 𝑟
𝑟̂
𝜎 𝑥
(e) Infinite charged conducting plates 𝐸𝑃 = (1 − )
2𝜀0 √𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2
(j) Null point for two charges:

𝜎 If |𝑄1 | > |𝑄2 | ⇒ Null point near 𝑄2 (Smaller

𝐸⃗⃗𝑃 = 𝑛̂
∈0 charge)
(f) Infinite sheet of charge (or charged √𝑄1
𝑥= 𝑟 (distance of null point from 𝑄1 )
non conducting plate) √𝑄1 ±√𝑄2

(+) for like charges ; (–) for unlike charges

 Equilibrium of suspended point charge
ball system
𝜎
𝐸⃗⃗𝑃 = 𝑛̂
2 ∈0
(g) Charged circular ring at an axial
point :

For equilibrium position 𝑇 cos 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 &

𝑘𝑄𝑥 𝑘𝑄 2 𝐹
𝑒 𝑘𝑄 2
𝐸𝑃 = 𝑇 sin 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑥2
⇒ tan 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑥 2 𝑚𝑔
3
(𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 )2
 If whole set up is taken into an
𝑅
Field will be maximum at 𝑥 = ± artificial satellite (𝑔𝑒𝑓𝑓 ≃ 0)𝑇 = 𝐹𝑒 =
√2
𝑘𝑞2
At centre of ring 𝑥 = 0 so 𝐸0 = 0 4ℓ2

(h) Segment of ring :

2𝑘𝜆 𝛼
𝐸0 = sin ( )
𝑅 2
(i) Due to charged disk 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗
 (i) For uniform electric field; 𝜙 = Electric lines of electrostatic field have following
𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝐴⃗ = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃 where 𝜃 = angle properties
between 𝐸⃗⃗ & area vector (𝐴⃗). Flux (i) Imaginary lines
is contributed only due to the (ii) Never intersect each other
component of electric field which is (iii) Electrostatic field lines never forms
perpendicular to the plane. closed loops
(ii) If 𝐸⃗⃗ is not uniform throughout the (iv) Field lines ends or starts normally at
area A, then the surface of a conductor
⃗⃗ ⃗
𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 (v) If there is no electric field there will
(iii) ⃗
𝑑𝐴 represent area vector normal to be no field lines.
the surface and pointing outwards (vi) Number of electric field lines per
from a closed surface. unit area normal to the area at a point
represents magnitude of intensity,
crowded lines represent strong field
while distant lines weak field.
(vii) Tangent to the line of force at a point
in an electric field gives the direction
∑𝑞
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = ∈0
(Applicable only to closed surface) of intensity of electric field

𝑞𝑒𝑛
𝜙 = ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ =
𝜀0
where 𝑞𝑒𝑛 = 𝑛𝑒𝑡 charge enclosed by the closed
surface. 𝜙 does not depend on the The potential difference between two points A
and B is work done by external agent against
(i) Shape and size of the closed surface. electric field in taking a unit positive charge from
(ii) The charges located outside the B to A without acceleration (or keeping Kinetic
closed surface. Energy constant or 𝐾𝑖 = 𝐾𝑖 ) ) 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 =
(iii) Electric field depends on charges (𝑊𝐵𝐴 )𝑒𝑥𝑡
both inside and outside the surface. 𝑞
 Electric field intensity at a point
𝝈
near charged conductor : 𝑬 = ∈
𝟎
 Electrostatics pressure on a
𝝈𝟐
charged conductor : 𝑷 = 𝟐∈𝟎 It is the work done against the field to take a unit
 Energy density in electric field : positive charge from infinity (reference point) to
𝟏 the given point without gaining any kinetic
𝒖𝑬 = 𝟐 ∈𝟎 𝑬𝟐
energy
(𝑊∞−𝑃 )𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑉𝑃 = [ ]
𝑞

𝑘𝑞
(i) Point charge 𝑉= 𝑟
 (ii) Charged conducting sphere
𝒒 𝒌𝒒
𝑽= 𝟏 =
𝒓
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 (𝒂𝟐 + 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐
(vi) Due to charged disk:

𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
(a) 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑟
;𝑟 >𝑅 (b) 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑅
;𝑟 =𝑅
𝑘𝑞
(c) 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑅
;𝑟 <𝑅

(iii) Uniformly charged non 𝝈

conducting sphere 𝑽𝑷 = (√𝒙𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 − 𝒙)
𝟐𝜺𝟎

⃗⃗𝑉, 𝐸 = − 𝜕𝑉 ;
𝐸⃗⃗ = −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉 = ∇
𝜕𝑟
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞
(a) 𝑉𝑐 = ;𝑟 >𝑅 (b) 𝑉𝐵 = ;𝑟 =𝑅 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑟 𝑅
𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ , 𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑⃗𝑟
𝑘𝑞[3𝑅2 −𝑟 2 ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(c) 𝑉𝐴 = 2𝑅3
;𝑟 < 𝑅

(iv) Segment ring :

It is the amount of work required to bring the two

point charges to a particular separation from ∞
without change in KE.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈=
4𝜋 ∈0 𝑟
𝒌𝝀.𝜶 𝒌𝑸
𝑽𝟎 = 𝑹
= 𝑹
where 𝑸 = 𝝀𝜶𝑹

(v) Electric Potential at a Distant

Point Along The Axis of a charged
Ring
In an electric field the locus of points of equal
potential is called an equipotential surface. An
equipotential surface and the electric field line
meet at right angles. The region where 𝐸 = 0,
Potential of the whole region must remain
constant as no work is done in displacement of  Electric field in the bulk of the conductor
charge in it. It is called as equipotential region (volume) is zero while it is perpendicular
like conducting bodies. to the surface in electrostatics.
 Excess charge resides on the free surface
of conductor in electrostatic condition.
 Potential throughout the volume of the
conductor is same in electrostatics.
If equal and opposite point charges are placed at  Charge density at convex sharp points on
very small separation then system is known as a conductor is greater. Lesser is radius of
dipole. curvature at a convex part, greater is the
charge density.
Electric dipole moment = 𝑞2ℓ  Potential difference between two points
1. It is a vector quantity in an electric field does not depend on the
2. Direction is from –ve to +ve charge path between them.
 Potential at a point due to positive charge
Electric dipole in uniform electric field is positive & due to negative charge is
negative
1. Torque 𝜏⃗ = 𝑝⃗ × 𝐸⃗⃗ or 𝜏 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃  When 13 is parallel to E then the dipole
2. Work done in rotation to dipole from 𝜃1 , is in stable equilibrium
to 𝜃2 angle in external electric field.  When P is antiparallel to E then the
3. Potential energy = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 dipole is in unstable equilibrium.
Note:  Self potential energy of a charged
𝐾𝑄 2
conducting spherical shell = 2𝑅
 In uniform field, force on a dipole = 0,
torque may or may not be zero.  A spherically symmetric charge (i.e 𝜌
 In general in non-uniform field, force on depends only on 𝑟 ) behaves as if its
a dipole ≠ 0 and torque may or may not charge is concentrated at its centre (for
be zero outside points).
̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝐸  Dielectric strength of material: The
 In non uniform 𝐸⃗⃗ , 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑝⃗.
𝑑𝑟 minimum electric field required to ionize
the medium or the maximum electric
field which the medium can bear without
break down.
 The particles such as photon or neutrino
which have no (rest) mass can never has
Electric field Potential a charge because charge cannot exist
1. At axial 2𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑝 without mass.
𝑟3 𝑟2  Electric charge is invariant because value
2. at 𝑘𝑝 0 of electric charge does not depend on
equatorial 𝑟 3 frame of reference.
3. at general 𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑝 cos 𝜃  A charged particle is free to move in an
√1 + 3 cos 2 𝜃 electric field. It may or may not move
position 𝑟 3 𝑟2
 Electric field in along an electric line of force because
the bulk of the initial conditions affect the motion of
conductor charged particle.
(volume) is zero  Electrostatic experiments do not work
while it is well in humid days because water is a
perpendicular to good conductor of electricity.
the surface in  A metallic shield in form of a hollow
electrostatics. conducting shell may be built to block an
electric field because in a hollow
conducting shell, the electric field is zero
at every point.
 Chapter 18
CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE

If two parallel plates each of area A & separated

by a distance d are charged with equal & opposite
charge Q, then the system is called a parallel plate
∈0 ∈𝑟 𝐴
capacitor & its capacitance is given by ,C= 𝑑
A capacitor consists of two conductors carrying ∈0 𝐴
in a medium ; C = 𝑑
with air as medium
charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
The capacitance C of any capacitor is the ratio This result is only valid when the electric field
magnitude of the charge Q on either conductor to between plates of capacitor is constant
𝑄
the potential difference V between them C= 𝑉
∈0 𝐴
(ii) Medium Partly Air: 𝑪 = 𝑡
The capacitance depends only on the geometry of 𝑑−(𝑡− )
∈𝑟
the conductors and not charge given to conductor
or potential difference
Capacitance of an isolated Spherical
Conductor
𝐶 = 4𝜋 ∈0 ∈𝑟 𝑅 in a medium C = 4𝜋 ∈0 𝑅 in
air

When a di-electrics lab of thickness 𝑡 & relative

permittivity ∈𝑟 is introduced between the plates
of an air capacitor, then the distance between the
plates is effectively reduced by (𝑡 −
𝑡
∈𝑟
) irrespective of the position of die-electric slab

(iii) Composite Medium ;

(a) When dielectrics are in series
∈0 𝐴
𝒄= 𝑡 𝑡2 𝑡3
1
∈𝑟1 + ∈𝑟2 + ∈𝑟3

(b) When distance are in parallel

(i) Uniform Di-electric Medium

 e ach one is different (if the capacitors
are unequal )
In parallel combination charge on capacitor will
be distributed in the ratio of their capacitance.
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 + ⋯ … + 𝐶𝑛

𝜺𝟎
𝒄= [𝑨 ∈ + 𝑨𝟐 ∈𝑟2 + 𝑨𝟑 ∈𝑟3 ]
𝒅 𝟏 𝑟1

(i) Capacitors In Series :

In this arrangement all the capacitors 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
when uncharged get the same charge Q 𝑄 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3
but the potential difference across each 𝑉= = = =
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
will differ (if the capacitance are
unequal), In series combination the Energy Stored in a charged capacitor
potential difference on capacitor will be
inversely proportional to its Capacitance C, charge Q & potential difference
1 1
capacitance. V; then energy stored is 𝑈 = 2 𝑐𝑣 2 = 2 𝑄𝑉 =
1 𝑄2
1 1 1 1 1 2 𝐶
where Q & V are charge & voltage of
= + + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛 capacitor C, This energy is stored in the
electrostatic field set up in the di-electric medium
𝑄 = (𝐶𝑒𝑞 . 𝑉) = 𝐶1 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 𝑉2 = 𝐶3 𝑉3 between the conducting plates of the capacitor.
1
Energy density 𝑢 = 2 𝜖0 𝐸2 , 𝐸 is electric field
between plate of capacitor

Heat produced in switching in capacitive

circuit:
Due to charge flow always some amount of heat
is produced when a switch is closed in a circuit
which can be obtained by energy conservation as-
(ii) Capacitors in Parallel
When one plate of each capacitor is Heat = Work done by battery = Change in energy
connected to the positive terminal of the of capacitor
battery & the other plate of each
capacitor is connected to the negative Work done by battery to charge a capacitor
terminals of the battery , Then the 𝑄2
capacitors are said to be in parallel 𝑊 = 𝐶𝑉 2 = 𝑄𝑉 =
𝐶
connection. the capacitors have the same
potential difference. V but the charge on
 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐶 is time constant of circuit

 Discharging of a capacitor

When two charged conductors of capacitance

𝐶1 & 𝐶2 At potential 𝑉1 & 𝑉2 respectively are
connected by a conducting wire, the charge flows
from higher potential conductor to lower
potential conductor, until the potential of the two
condensers becomes equal. The common 𝑞 = 𝑞0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
potential (V) after sharing of charges;
𝑞 = change at any time
(i) When the positive plate of one connected to
positive plate of other then common potential 𝑞0 = initial charge
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑞1 +𝑞2 𝐶1 𝑉1 +𝐶2 𝑉2 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = time constant of circuit
𝑉= = =
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶1 +𝐶2 𝐶1 +𝐶2
 The energy of a
Charges after sharing 𝑞1 = 𝐶1 𝑉 & 𝑞2 = 𝐶2 𝑉. in charged conductor
this process energy is lost in the connecting wire resides outside the
as heat conductor in its
This loss of energy is electric field, where
as in a consider it is
𝐶 𝐶
𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑈𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 = 2(𝐶1+𝐶
2
(𝑉 - 𝑉 )2
) 1 2
stored within the
1 2
consider in its electric field.
(ii) When negative of one with negative of other  The energy of an uncharged condenser =
𝐶 𝑉 −𝐶 𝑉 0
then common potential. 𝑉𝐶 1𝐶1 −𝐶2 2
1 2
 The capacitance of a capacitor depends
After connection ratio of charge would be in ratio only its size & geometry & the di-electric
𝑞1 𝐶1 between the conducting surface (i.e
of capacitance =
𝑞2 𝐶2 0 independent of the nature of material of
 Attractive force between capacitor conductor , like, whether it is copper,
plate silver, gold etc )
 The two adjacent conductors carrying
𝜎 𝑄2 same charge can be at different potential
𝑭 = ( ) (𝜎𝐴) =
2𝜖0 2𝜖0 𝐴 because the conductors may have
different sizes and hence different
 Charging of a capacitor capacitance.
 When a capacitor is charged by a battery,
both the plates received charge equal in
magnitude, no matter sizes of plates are
identical or not because the charge
distribution on the plates of a capacitor is
in accordance with charge conservation
principle,
𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ) where 𝑞0 = 𝐶𝑉0
 On filling the space between the plates of
𝑞 = charge at any time a parallel plate air capacitor with a
dielectric, capacity of the capacitor is
 increased because the same amount of  If an isolated conductor is brought near
charge can be stored at reduced potential charged conductor then it increased the
 The potential of a grounded object is capacity of system. This is principal of
taken to be zero because capacitance of parallel plate capacitor.
the earth is very large.
 Chapter 18
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

𝑉𝑑
The terms 𝐸
is called mobility of charge carriers,
𝑉𝑑 𝑒𝜏
represented by 𝜇 = 𝐸
= 𝑚
,

The rate of flow of electric charge across any (here 𝜏 → mean relaxation time depends on
1
cross-section is called electric current temperature 𝜏 ∝ ,𝑇 → absolute temperature
√𝑇
𝑑𝑞 of the cunductor)
(a) Instantaneous electric current 𝐼 =
𝑑𝑡

∆𝑞
(b) Average electric current 𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝑡

𝑽 1 𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝑰= where R = = where 𝜌( resistivity )
𝑹 𝜎𝐴 𝐴
1
= 𝜎

Current flowing per unit area through any cross Hence according to Ohm’s law when R is
section is called current density constant 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉 ⇒ 𝐼 ~ 𝑉 curve is a stright line ( at
constant temperature )
Resistance of a Conductor is given by
𝜌𝑙 𝑚𝑙
𝑅= = 2
𝐴 𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝐴
Where 𝜌 is resistivity . Its units is 𝛺 m
𝑚
𝐼 Resistivity of a conductor , 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏( where m is
𝐽= mass of electron , n is number of density of free
𝐴
electrons, τ is average relaxation time)
𝐼 = 𝐽⃗. 𝐴⃗ = 𝐽𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝑙
Variatation with length ; 𝑹 = 𝜌 𝐴

(a) If a wire is cut to alter its length ,then area

remain same ∴ 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙

Average velocity with which electrons drift from (b) If a wire is stretched or drawn out or folded ,
low potential end to high potential end of the area varies but volume remains constant ⇒ 𝑅 ∝
conductor (𝑉𝑑 ). Drift velocity is given by 𝑙2
𝑒𝑟
𝑣⃗ d= − 𝑚 𝐸⃗⃗ ( in terms of applied electrif field ) For small percentage changes ( < 5% ) in length
∆𝑅 2∆𝑙
by stretching or folding , then 𝑅
= 𝑙
𝐼
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴 ( in terms of current through the
Variation with area of cross-section or
conductor ) from second relation
thickness
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉d where A is the area of corss-section (a) If area is increased/ decreased but length is
and “Avd” represents the rate of flow kept same
 1 1
∴ 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴 or 𝑅 ∝ 𝑟2 ( r = radius / thickness )

(b) If area is increased / decreased but volume

remains same
1 1
𝑅 ∝ 𝐴2 or 𝑅 ∝ 𝑟4
𝑅 𝑅
For two resistance 𝑅 = 𝑅 1+𝑅2
For Conductors ; 1 2

𝜌1 = 𝜌0 ( 1 + 𝛼𝑡), where ‘ 𝛼 ’ is temperature

Coefficent of resistivity
As 𝑅 ∝ 𝜌 ⇒ 𝑅 = 𝑅0 (1+∝ 𝑡)
( 𝑅0 is the resistance at reference temperature )
At temperature 𝑡1 , 𝑅1 = 𝑅0 (1+∝ 𝑡1 )
At temperature 𝑡2 , 𝑅2 = 𝑅0 (1+∝ 𝑡2 )
(a) Resistance between two never corners
𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
⇒𝛼 = , 𝑅0 = 𝑅12 =
7
𝑟 𝐶12 =
12𝐶
(𝑡
𝑅0 2 − 𝑡1 ) ∝ (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) 12 7

(b) Resistance across factor diagonal

3 4𝐶
𝑅13 = 4 𝑟 𝐶13 = 3

(c) Resistance across main diagonal

Resistance in Series: 5 6𝐶
𝑅17 = 6 𝑟 𝐶17 = 5
𝑹 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯ … … . . +𝑅𝑁 and

𝑽 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ … … + 𝑉𝑛

1. Junction Rule:
It is based on conservation of charge

Resistance in Parallel:
Effective resistance (R) then
1 1 1 1 1
𝑅
= 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯……+ 𝑅
1 2 3 𝑛
2. Loop Rule:
For any closed loop , total rise in potential + total
fall in potentail = 0
 An instrument used to measure strength of
current by measuring the deflection of me coil
due to torque produced by a magnetic field.
𝑇∝𝑖∝𝜃
It is based on conservation of energy
A glavanomter can be converted into ammeter &
voltmeter of varied scale as below.

 EMF(E): The potential difference across

the terminals of apractical cell when no
current is being drawn from it. It is modified form of suspended coil
 Internal Resistance (r) The opposition galvanomter, it is used to measure current, A
offlowof current inside the cell. shunt (small resistance) is connected in parallel
itdepends on with galvanomter to convert into ammeter
(i) Distance between electrodes ↑⇒ 𝑟 ↑
(ii) Area of electrodes ↑⇒ 𝑟 ↓
(iii) Concentration of electrodes ↑⇒ 𝑟 ↑
(iv) Temperature ↑⇒ 𝑟 ↓
Series grouping :

where
𝑅𝑔 = galvanomter resistance

𝐼𝑔 = Maximum current that can flow through the

galvanomter
(a) 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 + 𝐸3 + ⋯ … . 𝐸𝑛
𝐼 = Maximum current that can be measured
(b) 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 + ⋯ … . 𝑟𝑛
using the given ammeter
∑𝐸 𝑖
(c) Current 𝑖 = ∑ 𝑟 +𝑅
1 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
(d) If all cells have equal emf E and equal
emf E and equal internal resistance r
𝑛𝐸
then 𝑖 = 𝑛𝑟+𝑅

Cases:
A high resistance is put in series with
𝐸
(i) If nr >> R ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑟
(ii) If nr << R ⇒𝑖 = galvanometer. It is used to measure potential
𝑛𝐸 difference.
𝑅
𝑉0
𝐼𝑔 = 𝑅 ;𝑅 → ∞, Ideal voltmeter
𝑔 +𝑅
The energy liberated per second in a device is
called its power, The electrical power P delivered
1 unit of electrical energy
by an electrical device is given by 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 ,
where 𝑉 = potential difference across device & I = kilowatt hour
= current .If the current enters the higher potential
= 1𝑘𝑊ℎ = 3.6 × 106 joules
point of the device then power is consumed by it
(i.e., acts as load ) If the current enters the lower  Series combination of Bulbs
potential point then the device supplies power
(i.e., acts as source). 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯ ..
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝑃3
Power consumed by a resistor
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑉𝐼 =
𝑅

 Parallel Combination of Bulbs

When a current is passed through a resistor 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 +𝑃3 + ⋯.

energy is wasted in over coming the resistance of
the wire This energy is converted into heat

𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑙𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = 𝒕
𝑅

 A current flows
through a
conductor only
The heat generated ( in joules ) when a current of when there is an
I ampere flows through a resistance of R ohm for electric filed
T second is given by: within the
𝐼2 𝑅𝑇 conductor because
𝐻 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑇 joule = 4.2
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 the drift velocity
of electrons is directly proportional to the
If current is variable passing through the
applied electric field.
conductor then we use for heat produced in
 Electric filed outside the conducting wire
resistance in time
which carriers a constant current is zero
𝑇 because net charge on a current carrying
0 to T is : 𝐻 = ∫0 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑑𝑡
conductor is zero
 A metal has a resistance and gets
oftenheated by flow of current because
 whenf ree electrons drift through a metal  An ammeter is always connectedin series
, they make occasional collisions with the whereas a voltmeter is connected in
lattice. These collisions are inelastic and parallel because anammeter is a low-
transfer energy to thelattice as internal resistance galvanometer while a
energy. voltmeter is a high resistance
 Ohm's law holds only for small current in galvanometer.
metallic wire, not for high currents  Current is passed through a metallic
because resistance increased with wires , heating it red , when cold water is
increase in temperature . poured over half of the portion , rest of
 Potentiometer is an ideal instrument to the portion becomes more hot because
measure the potential difference because resistance decreases due to decrease in
potential gradient along the temperature so current through wire
potentiometer wire can bemade very increases.
small.
 Chapter 18
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF
CURRENT & MAGNETISM

(a) Field at point P due to current

element:
𝜇0 Idℓ sinθ
dB =
4π r2

𝜇 I
0
(b) Infinite length wire ; 𝐵𝑝 = 2πd

Vector form :-
𝜇 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Idℓ × r⃑ 𝜇0 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Idℓ × r̂
⃗⃗ = 0
dB =
4π r 3 4π r2
𝜇0 Id𝑙 sinθ
=[ ] 𝑛̂
4π r2
(b) Field at point P due to moving change
𝜇0 𝑞𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐵𝑝 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

(c) Semi infinite length wire; 𝐵𝑝 =

𝜇0 I
4πd
( sin 𝜃 + 1)

Vector form :-
𝜇 𝑞(𝑣⃑ × 𝑟⃑) 𝜇 𝑞(𝑣⃑ × 𝑟̂ )
⃗⃑𝑝 =
𝐵 =
𝑝 𝑟3 𝑝 𝑟2
𝜇0 𝑞𝑣 sin 𝜃
=[ ] 𝑛̂
4π 𝑟2
𝜇 I
0
(a) Finite length wire ; 𝐵𝑝 = 4πd ( sin 𝜃1 +
sin 𝜃2 )
 (d) Near end of Semi infinite length wire: 𝑅
[ where sin 𝜃 = ]
𝜇 I √𝑥 2 + 𝑅2
0
𝐵𝑝 = 4πd

𝑩𝒙 − 𝒙 curve for circular coil

(e) Near end of Finite length wire : 𝐵𝑝 =
𝜇0 I
(sin θ)
4πd

P & Q = Point of inflection , Point of curvature

change , Point of zero curvature

Magnetic field at centre of current carrying

Magnetic field at centre of current carrying circular Arc
loop ( N = 1)

𝜇0 I
𝐵𝑝 = 2R 𝜇0𝐼(∝)
𝐵0∝ =
Magnetic field at centre of current carrying 4𝜋𝑅
circular coil ( N > 1) Where ∝→in radian
u0 NI Ampere circurtal law
𝐵𝑝 = , where N → number of turns
2R
Magnetic field at an axial point of current ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (∑𝐼)
⃗⃗. 𝑑ℓ
carrying circular coil
∑ 𝐼 is total current enclosed through the loop
u0 NIR2
𝐵𝑝 = = B0 sin 3θ (a) Solid cylindrical wire :-
2(x 2 + R2 )3/2
 Point Result
Field inside toroid :-
(1) r > R 𝐵 𝜇 𝐼
𝑜𝑢𝑡= 0 𝐵 = 𝜇0𝑛𝐼 ,𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛=𝑁/2𝜋𝑅𝑚 . 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
2𝜋𝑟

(2) r = R 𝐵 𝜇
𝐼 Mean radius 𝑅𝑚= 𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑠= 0
2𝜋𝑅 2

(3) r < R 𝐵 𝜇
𝐼𝑟
𝑖𝑛= 0 2
2𝜋𝑅

(4) r = 0 𝐵𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠=0
(b) Hollow cylindrical wire :-

Magnetic force on moving charge in magnetic

field

Vector from ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑

𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞 ( 𝑉 ⃗⃑ ×
Point Result ⃑
⃗⃑𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) 𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 ⌈𝐹𝑚 ⊥ 𝑣⃑ ⌉
𝐵
𝐹⃑𝑚 ⊥ 𝐵⃗⃑𝑒𝑥𝑡
(1) r > b 𝐵 𝐼𝜇
𝑜𝑢𝑡= 0
2𝜋𝑟

𝜇0𝐼 𝑟 2 −𝑎 2
(2) a < r < b ( )
2𝜋𝑟 𝑏2 −𝑎 2

(3) r < a zero Magnitude form :

(4) r = 0 zero
Field at a axial point of solenoid :-
(a) Infinite length ;-
𝐵𝑖𝑛= 𝜇 𝑛𝑖; 𝐵 =0 ,𝐵 𝜇0𝑛𝑖
Motion of charge in uniform field
0 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑 = 2
(b) Finite length : 𝐵𝑝= 𝑢0𝑛𝐼( 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
2 1 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 ) ⃗⃑ , 90°) qvB 𝑚𝑣
(𝑣⃑ ⊥ 𝐵 𝑟
 (a) Straight wire :-𝐹⃗𝑚 = 𝐼(𝐿⃗⃗ ×
⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 )
𝐵

(a) Radius of circular path : (b) Arbitrary wire :- 𝐹⃗𝑚 = 𝐼(𝑣⃗ ×

𝑚𝑣 ⃗⃗𝑒𝑥𝑡/𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 )
𝐵
𝑟= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝐸𝑘
𝑞𝐵
= √2𝑚𝑞𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑐
2𝜋𝑚
(b) Time period : 𝑇 = 𝑞𝐵

(𝑞𝐵𝑟)2
(c) Kinetic energy of charge : 𝐸𝑘 = 2𝑚

Motion of charge in uniform field at any

angle except 𝟎° or 𝟏𝟖𝟎° or 𝟗𝟎° Magnetic force b/w two long parallel wires
𝑚𝑣𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
(a) Radius of helical path : 𝑟 =
𝑞𝐵

2𝜋𝑚
(b) Time period : 𝑇 =
𝑞𝐵

(c) Pitch of helix : 𝑃 = (𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑇 , 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 =

2𝜋𝑚
𝑞𝐵

Combined effect of E & B on moving charge

Electromegnetic or Lorentz force
𝜇𝟎 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐹𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐹𝑒 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐹𝑚 ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐹𝐿 = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃑ + 𝑞(𝑣⃑ × 𝐵
⃗⃑) 𝒇= 𝑵/𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝒅
Magnetic force on current carrying wire ( or Parallel current ⇒ Attraction
conductor ) [ ]
antiparrel currents ⇒ Repulsion

When a plane closed current circuit is placed in ⃗⃗= magnetic

where the current is anticlockwise, 𝐵
uniform magnetic field , it experience a zero net induction of the uniform magnetic field
force, but experience a torque given by 𝜋 ⃗⃑ = 𝑀⃗⃗⃗=magnetic moment of current circuit = 𝑁𝐼𝐴⃗
𝑁𝐼𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑀 ⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐼𝑁𝐴⃗ sin 𝜃 where 𝐴⃑ =
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
area vector outward from the face of circuit ⃗⃗ is
Note : This expression can be used only if 𝐵
uniform
 Magnetic field at a point which is at a distance r
from dipole midpoint and making angle 𝜃 with
diple axis

𝜇0 𝑀√1 + 3𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
It consists of a plane coil of many turns suspended ⃗⃗ =
𝐵
in a radial magnetic field, When a current is 4𝜋 𝑟3
passed in the coil it experiences a torque which Torque on dipole placed in uniform magnetic
produces a twist in the suspension. ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗
field 𝑟⃗ = 𝑀
This deflection is directly proportional to the
torque. Potential energy of dipole placed in an uniform
field 𝑈 = −𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝐾
∴ 𝑁𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝐾𝜃; 𝐼 (𝑁𝐴𝐵) 𝜃;

K= elastic torsional constant of the suspension.

𝐾
𝐼 = 𝐶𝜃;𝐶 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵 = Galvanometer constant
If a charge q is rotating at an angle velocity , its
𝑞𝜔
equivalent current is given as 𝐼 = 2𝜋 & its
1
magnetic moment is 𝑀 = 𝐼𝜋𝑅 2 = 2
𝑞𝜔𝑅 2

Magnetic moment 𝑀 = 𝑚 × 1𝑙, where m is pole

strength of the magnet
Magnetic field at axial point ( or End – on
⃗⃗⃑
⃗⃑ = 𝜇0
position ) of dipole 𝐵
2𝑀
4𝜋 𝑟3

Magnetic field at equatorial position (Broad –

Note :- The ratio of magnetic moment to angular
side on position ) of dipole )
momentum called gyromagnetic ratio of
⃗⃗⃑
𝜇0 – 𝑀 uniform rotating object which is charged
⃗⃗ =
𝐵 uniformly is always a constant and equal
4𝜋 𝑟 3
to half of specific charge, Irrespective of
the shape of conductor 𝑀/𝐿 = 𝑞/2𝑚

(a) Imaginary vertical plane passing through (b) On the magnetic meridian, the magnetic
the magnetic North-South poles at that induction vector of the earth at any point,
place. This plane is called the generally inclined to the horizontal at an
MAGNETIC MERIDIAN, the Earth's angle called the MAGNETIC DIP at
Magnetic poles are opposite to the that place, such that
geometric poles i.e at earth's north pole, ⃗⃑ = total magnetic induction of the earth
𝐵
its geomagnetic south pole is situated and at that point
vice versa
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑𝑣 = the Vertical component of 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗⃑ in the  Intensity of magnetization I = M /V
magnetic meridian plane = B sin 𝜃  Magnetic induction 𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃑
𝐵𝐻 = the horizontal comoponent of 𝐵 ⃗⃑ in 𝝁𝟎 ( 𝑯 + 𝟏)
𝑩
the magnetic meridian plane = B cos 𝜃,  Magnetic permeability u = 𝑯
𝐵𝑣 𝑰
= tan 𝜃  Magnetic susceptibility 𝑿𝒎 = 𝑯 =
𝐵𝐻
(c) At a given place on the surface of the 𝝁𝒓 − 𝟏
earth, the magnetic meridian and the  Curie law
geographic meridian may not coincide, 𝟏
 For paramagnetic materials 𝒙𝒎 ∝ 𝑻
the angle between them is called
 Curie Wiess law
"DECLINATION AT THAT 1
PLACE"  For Ferromagnetic materials 𝑥𝑚 ∝ 𝑇−𝑇
𝑐
Where 𝑇𝑐 =curie temperature
 A charged particle move perpendicular to magnetic field , Its kinetic
energy will remain constant but momentum changes because magnetic force
acts perpendicular to velocity of particle,
 If a unit north pole rotates around a current carrying wire then work has to
be done because magnetic field produces by current is always non-
conservative in nature
 In a conductor , free electrons keep on moving but no magnetic force acts
on a conductor in a magnetic field because in a conductor ,the average thermal velocity of electrons
in zero
 Magnetic force between two charges is generally much smaller than the electric force between them
because speeds of charges are much smaller than the free space speed of light.
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑉2
Note :- =
𝐹𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐶2
 Chapter 19
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

⃗⃑. 𝐴⃑ = 𝑁𝐵𝐴 cosθ

Magnetic flux (∅)= 𝑁𝐵 field then emf induced between its centre
𝐵𝜔𝑙 2.
and periphery is given by emf=
Faraday’s law 2

𝑑∅
Induced emf = | 𝑑𝑡 |

When a loop of area A is rotated about is diameter

 It states that the direction of current in uniform magnetic field B the maximum
induced in the loop is such that it oppose induced 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
due to which it h as produced
 It is in accordance with law of Note :-
conservation of energy
𝑑∅
 Induced emf = − 𝑑𝑡 Here negative sign
is due to Lenz law

Phenomena of induced emf due to change in its

 Charges flown due to induced emf, Q = 𝐿𝑑𝑖
∆∅ own current ∅ = Li emf = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
 In general , motional induced emf , 𝑒 =
(𝑣⃑ × 𝐵⃗⃑). ⃗⃑
ℓ
 When a rod moves perpendicular to its
length and perpendicular to magnetic
field then induces emf in rod = 𝐵ℓ𝑣 𝜇0 𝑁 2 𝐴
( 𝑣⃑ ⊥ ⃗⃗⃑
ℓ ⊥ 𝐵 ⃗⃑) 𝐿= = 𝜇0 𝑛2 𝐴𝑙
𝑙
N = numbers of turns ; n = numbers of
turns/length

 When a conducting disc or conducting

rod is rotated about its axis ⊥ to magnetic 1 1 1
Series 𝐿 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 Parallel 𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿
1 2
 1 2 ∅2 ∅𝑖
𝑈 = 𝐿𝑖 = =
2 2𝐿 2
𝐵2
 Energy density = 2𝜇 Works only for AC
0

Principal : Mutual induction

For ideal transformer
(1) Power loss = 0 ⇒ efficiency = 100%
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑝 𝑖2 𝑠 𝑅
Phenomena of including emf in a coil due to = = =turn ratio (efficiency ) = ×
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑝
change in current in another coil is known as
mutual induction. 100

𝑑𝑖
∅ = 𝑀𝑖 emf= −𝑀 𝑑𝑡

Mutual inductance between 2 solenoids

𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴
𝑀=
2

Transmissions are done at high voltage and low

current by using step up transformer

Produced due to change in magnetic field and is

𝑑∅
non-conservative in nature ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑⃗ℓ = − 𝐵 𝑑𝑡
 Initial current through the inductor = 𝐼0 ; Current
at any instant i = 𝐼0 𝒆−𝑹𝒕/𝑳

 Loop will repel

𝐸
𝐼 = 𝑅 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿 ), [if initial current =0] the magnet

𝐼 = 𝐼0 (1 − 𝒆−𝒕/𝒓 )
𝐿
𝑟=
𝑅
= time constant of the circuit  Loop will
attract the magnet
𝐸
𝐼0 = 𝑅

(i) L behaves as open circuit at t = 0 (as

if I = 0)  An emf is induced in a closed loop where
(ii) L behaves as short circuit at t = 𝜔 magnetic flux is varied , The induced
always electric, field is not conservative field
because for induced electric field, the
⃗⃗ around a closed
line integral ∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑ℓ
path is non-zero
 Acceleration of a magnet falling through
a long solenoid decrease because the
induced current produced in a circuit
always flows in such direction that it
𝐿 𝐿 opposes the charges or the cause that
Curve (1) → Large curve (2) → Small
𝑅 𝑅
produces it.
 The mutual inductance of two coils is
doubled if the self inductance of the
primary and secondary coil is doubled
because mutual inductance M = 𝐿1 𝐿2
 Chapter 20
ALTERNATING CURRENT & EM
WAVES

Voltage or current is said to be alternating if periodically it changes its dir. And magnitude.

𝑖 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

𝑡 𝑡
∫0 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
Average current = 𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √ 0 𝑡
∫0 𝑑𝑡 ∫0 𝑑𝑡

AC ammeter and voltmeter reads RMS value of current and voltages respectively ⇒ 𝑖0 > 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 > 𝑖𝐴𝑉

Nature of wave Wave form Value for RMS value Average or mean
form half cycle
Sinusoidal 𝑰𝟎 𝟐𝑰𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝐼0 ( half cycle )
= 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑰𝟎 𝝅
√𝟐

𝑰𝟎
Half wave rectifier = 0.5𝑰𝟎 𝑰𝟎
2 =0.318 𝑰𝟎 (full cycle )
𝝅

𝑰𝟎 𝟐𝑰𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑰𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑰𝟎
√𝟐 𝝅
Full wave
rectifier

Square or 𝑰𝟎 𝑰𝟎
Rectangular

𝑰𝟎
Saw Tooth Wave 𝑰𝟎 𝟐
√𝟑
 R L C

V = V0 sin ωt
V0 V = V0 sin ωt V = V0 sin ωt
i = sinω V0 V0
R i= − (−cosωt) i= cosωt
Resistance = R ωL 1
Reactance X L = ωL (ωC)

1
Reactance X C = ωC
VR = iR

 If 𝑉𝐶 > 𝑉𝐿 ⇒ 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
 If 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 ⇒ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

 If 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐿 ⇒ 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 , 𝑍 = 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 = 0
Impedence = 𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐 and
1 𝑉 𝑅
admittance = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖 = 𝑍 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑍 )
Power of AC Circuit :
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑖 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)

 (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝑅 = (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝑐 = (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝐿

 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝐼 2 𝑅 + (𝐼𝐶 − 𝐼𝐿 )2
 Q value =
max,energy stored per cycle
2𝜋 ( )
max ,energy loss per cycle
Power = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑖 2 𝑅 Q value represented the sharpness of
resonance
Wattfull current = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑉𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐶 2𝜋𝑓𝑟 𝐿 1 L
Also 𝑄= = = √ =
𝑉𝑅 𝑅 R C
Wattless current = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑓𝑟
Wattless power= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Where 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

At resonance

 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶
𝑉
 𝑍 = 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅
 Power Factor (𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑍 = 1)
 Angle (or phase deference ) between 𝑣
and 𝑖 = 0°
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝐿 (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝑐
 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑍
= 𝑋𝐿
= 𝑋𝐶
=  𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝑅 1
𝑅 Resonating frequency 𝜔0 =
√𝐿𝐶
 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝑟 2 + (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝐿 − (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )𝑐 ]2
|𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 | |𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 |
 tan ∅ = 𝑉𝑅
= 𝑅
𝑅𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
 < 𝑃 > = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos ∅ = 𝑍2

𝑋𝐿 1 𝐿
Sharpness ∝ quality factor = 𝑅
= 𝑅 = √𝐶 =
𝑓0
𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
 in which the wave is travelling, Thus, the
em wave is a transverse wave
 EM waves carry momentum and energy
 EM wave travel through vacuum with the
1
It is used to control alternating current without speed of light C, Where C = =
√𝑢0 𝜖0
any power loss, It is an inductor and low 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.
resistance  The instantons magnitude of 𝐸⃗⃑ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃑ in
an EM wave are related by the expression
𝐸
𝐵
=𝑐
High L, Low R 𝑍 = 𝑋𝐿 ⇒Power=
 The cross product 𝐸⃗⃑ × 𝐵 ⃗⃑ always gives
0
the direction in which the wave travels
 Poynting Vector : the rate of flow of
energy crossing a unit area by
electromagnetic radiation is given by
pointing vector 𝑆⃑ where 𝑆⃑ = 1/𝜇0 (𝐸⃗⃑ ×
⃗⃑)
𝐵
 Displacement current :- In a region of
space in which there is changing electric
field, there is a displacement current
𝑑∅𝑡
𝑑2 𝑄 𝑄
defined as 𝐼𝑑 = 𝜖0 𝑑𝑡
where 𝜀0 is the
𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝐿 = 0 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝐶
=0 permittivity of free space and
𝑄 = 𝑄0 cos 𝜔𝑡 ⇒ 𝑖 = −𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 where 𝑖0 = ∅𝐸 =∫ 𝐸⃗⃑ . 𝑑𝑆⃑ is the electric flux.
𝑄0 𝜔  Maxwell’s Equations
𝑞
1
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = 𝜖 [Gauss law for
0
Where 𝜔 = frequency of oscillation
√𝐿𝐶 electricity]
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = 0 [Gauss law for
magnetism]
⃗⃗ = 𝑑∅𝐵 [Faraday’s law]
∮ 𝐸⃗⃗ . 𝑑ℓ 𝑑𝑡
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝑢0 [𝐼𝑐 + 𝜖0 𝑑∅𝐸 ]
⃗⃗. 𝑑ℓ [Ampere’s
𝑑𝑡

 The electric and magnetic field 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝐵

⃗⃗ law with Maxwell’s correction]
are always perpendicular to the direction

 An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz becomes zero, 100 times in one

second because alternating current changes direction and becomes zero twice
in a cycle
 An alternating current cannot be used to conduct electrolysis because the
ions due to their inertia, cannot follow the changing electric field.
 Average value of AC is always defined over half cycle because average
value of AC over a complete cycle is always zero
 AC current flows on the periphery of wire instead of flowing through total volume of wire. This
known as skin effect.
 Chapter 21
RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

that point towards which the rays

reflected from the mirror actually
converge (real image)

𝑶𝑹
The incident ray (AB), the reflected ray (BC) and
normal (NB) to the surface (SS') of reflection at  From which the reflected rays appear to
the point of incidence (B) lie in the same plane, diverge (virtue image)
This plane is called the plane of incidence ( also
plane of reflection)
The angle of incidence ( the angle between
normal and the incident ray) and the angle of
reflection (the angle between the reflected ray and
normal) are equal  The size of the image is the same as that
< 𝑖 =< 𝑟 of the object.
 For a real object the image is virtual and
for a virtual object the image is real
 For a fixed incident light ray , if the
mirror be rotated through an angle 𝜃 the
reflected ray turns through an angle 2𝜃 in
the same sense.
Number of images (n) in inclined mirror
360
In vector form 𝒓̂ = 𝒆̂ − 𝟐(𝒆̂. 𝒏
̂ )𝒏
̂ Find =𝑚
𝜃

 If m even , then 𝑛 = 𝑚 − 1 , for all

positions of object
 If m odd, then 𝑛 = 𝑚 , if object not on
bisector and 𝑛 = 𝑚 − 1 , if object at
 Real :- Point from which incident rays bisector
actually diverge
 Virtual: Point towards which incident
rays appear to converge

 Image is decided by reflected or refracted

rays only. The point image for a mirror is
 Beyond Betwee Diminished Real
C n F and and
C inverte
d
At At F Highly Real
Rays which forms very small angle with principal infinity diminished and
axis and close to it are called paraxial rays, All inverte
Formulae are valid for paraxial ray only. d

In front of Between P m < + 1 Virtual

 We follow Cartesian co-ordinate system mirror and F erect
convention according to which the pole At At F m <<+ 1 Virtual
of the mirror is the origin infinity and erect
 The direction of the incident rays is
considered as positive x-axis. Vertically
up is positive y-axis
 All distance are measured from pole
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Note: According to above convention radius of = +
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖
curvature and focus of concave mirror is negative
and of convex mirror is positive. f = x- coordinate of focus
u = x-coordinate of object
v= x-coordinate of image
Note :-Valid only for paraxial rays
Positio Positio Magnificatio Nature
n of n of n
object image
Betwee Behind +ve, m > 1 Virtual
n P and the and
F mirror erect ℎ2 𝑣
At F At -ve, highly Real 𝑚= =−
ℎ1 𝑢
infinity magnified and
inverte ℎ2 = y co-ordinate of image
d
ℎ1 = y co-ordiante of the object
Betwee Beyond -ve, magnified Real
n F and C and (both perpendicular to the principal axis of
C inverte mirror)
d
At C At C 𝑚 = −1 Real
and
inverte
d
Length of image
𝑚𝐿 =
Length of object
For small objects 𝑚𝐿 = −𝑚1 2 𝑉𝐼𝑀 =
𝑑𝑣
= velocity of image with respect to
𝑑𝑡
𝑚𝑡 = transverse magnification mirror
𝑑𝑢
𝑉𝑂𝑀 = 𝑑𝑡
=velocity of object with respect to
mirror

Velocity component along axis (Longitudinal

velocity )
Applicable to a pair of real object and real object
and real image position only . They are called
conjugate positions foci, 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 are the distance
along the principal axis of the real object and real
image respectively from the principal focus

𝑋1 , 𝑋2 = 𝑓 2

When an object is coming from infinite towards

the focus of concave mirror
1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑣 1 𝑑𝑢 1
∴ + = ∴− − =0 Optical power of a mirror (in Diopters) = −
𝑓
𝑣 𝑣 𝑓 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑢2 𝑑𝑡 where f = focal length (in meter) with sign.
𝑣2
⃗⃗𝐼𝑀 = − 2 𝑉
⇒ 𝑉 ⃗⃗ =-𝑚2 𝑉
⃗⃗𝑂𝑀
𝑢 𝑂𝑀

LAWS OF REFRACTION (at any refracting

surface)
𝐶
Index of Refraction , 𝑢 = 𝑣

(ii) The product of refractive index and

sine of angle of incidence at a point
(i) Incident ray, refracted ray and in a medium is constant 𝑢1 sin 𝑖 =
normal always lie in the same plane. 𝑢2 sin 𝑟 (snell’s law)
In vector form (𝑒̂ × 𝑛̂). 𝑟̂ = 0
sin 𝑖 𝜇 𝜈 𝜆
Snell’s Law : sin 𝑟 = 𝜇2 = 𝜇2 = 𝜈1 = 𝜆1
1 2 2

In vector form 𝑢1 |𝑒̂ × 𝑛̂| = 𝟏𝒖𝟐 |𝑟̂ × 𝑛̂|

Note : Frequency of light does not change during (ℎ′ < ℎ)𝑢1 > 𝑢2
refraction

𝑢
For near normal distance ℎ′ = 𝑢2 ℎ
1

Note : h and h’ are always measured from

surface

Angle of deviation, 𝜹 = 𝒊 − 𝒓

Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray, if

1
medium is same on both sides. ∆𝑥 = Apparent normal shift= 𝑡 (1 − 𝑢)

Note : Shift is always in direction of incidence

ray

𝑡 sin(𝑖−𝑟)
Lateral Shift 𝑥 = cos 𝑟
;𝑡 =thickness of slab

Note: Emergent ray will not be parallel to the

incident ray if the medium on both the sides are
different

CONDITIONS OF TIR

 Ray is going from denser to rarer

medium
 𝑢𝑅
 Angle of incidence should be greater then Critical angle: (𝐶) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 =
𝑢𝐷
the critical angle (𝑖 > 𝐶) 𝑣 𝝀
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑣 𝐷 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝝀𝑫
𝑅 𝑹

 Sparking of diamond : The sparkling of diamond is due to total internal reflection inside it. As
refractive index for diamond is 2.42 so 𝐶 = 24.41°, Now the cutting of diamond are such that
𝑖 > 𝐶 , So TIR will take place again and again inside it. The light which beams out from a few
places in some specific directions makes it sparkle.
 Optical Fibre: In it light through multiple total internal reflections in propagated along the axis of
a glass fibre of radius of few microns in which index of refraction of core is greater than that of
surroundings (cladding)

 Mirage and looming : Mirage is caused by total internal reflection in deserts where due to heating
of the earth, refractive index of air near the surface of earth becomes rarer than above it. Light from
distant objects reaches the surface of earth with 𝑖 > 𝜃𝐶 so that TIR will take place and we see the
image of an object along with the object as shown in figure.

Similar to 'mirage' in deserts, in polar regions 'looming' takes place due to TIR , Here u decreases
with height and so the image of an object is formed in air if (i > 𝜃𝐶 ) as shown in figure .
 𝑛𝑣 , 𝑛𝑅 & n are R, I of material for violet , Red
& yellow colours respectively

 Achromatic Combinations
It is used for deviation without dispersion
Conditions for this (𝑛𝑣 − 𝑛𝑅 ) 𝐴 + (𝑛′𝑣 −
𝑛′𝑅 ) 𝐴’ = 0
 𝛿 = (𝒊 + 𝒊′ ) − (𝒓 + 𝒓′ ) 𝜔𝛿 + 𝜔′ 𝛿 ′ = 0 , where 𝜔 , 𝜔′ are dispersive
 𝒓 + 𝒓′ = 𝑨 powers for the two prisms & 𝛿 , 𝛿′ are the mean
 There is one and only one angle of deviation Net mean deviation
incidence for which the angle of
𝑛𝑣 − 𝑛𝑅 𝑛′ 𝑣 − 𝑛′ 𝑅
deviation is minimum =[ − 1] 𝐴 + [ − 1] 𝐴′
When 𝛿 = 𝛿𝒎 then 𝑖 = 𝑖′ & 𝑟 = 𝑟’ , 2 2
the ray passes symmetrically about the
 Direction Vision Combination
prism & then
𝑎+𝛿𝒎
sin[
𝟐
] It is used for producing dispersion without
𝑛= 𝐴 , where n = R, L of glass deviation conditions for this
sin[ ]
2
w.r.t. surroundings 𝑛𝑣 +𝑛𝑅 𝑛′ 𝑣 +𝑛′ 𝑅
 For a thin prism ( A < 100 : 𝛿 =)𝒏 − [ 2
− 1] 𝐴 = − [ 2
− 1] 𝐴′
𝟏)𝑨
Net angle of dispersion = (𝑛𝑣 − 𝑛𝑅 )𝐴 +
 Dispersion of light : When white light is
( 𝑛′ 𝑣 − 𝑛′ 𝑅 )𝐴′
incident on a prism then it split into seven
colours, This phenomenon is known as
dispersion.
 Angle of Dispersion : Angle between the
rays of the extreme colours in the
refracted (dispersed) light is called Angle
of Dispersion 𝝁2 𝝁 𝝁 −𝝁
 𝑽
− 𝑼1 = 2 𝑅 1
𝜃 = 𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑟
𝑣, 𝑢 & 𝑅 are to be kept with sign as
 Dispersive power (𝜔) of the medium of
the material of prism 𝑣 = 𝑃𝐼
angular dispersion 𝑢 = −𝑃𝑂
𝜔= 𝑅 = 𝑃𝐶
deviation of mean ray ( yellow) (Note : Radius is with sign )
𝜇 𝑉
 Magnification 𝑚 = 𝜇 1 𝑈
2
 Lens Formula:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
− −
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇

For small angled prism (𝐴 ≤ 110°);

𝛿𝑣 − 𝛿𝑅 𝑛𝑣 − 𝑛𝑅 𝑛𝑣 + 𝑛𝑅
𝜔= = ;𝑛 =
𝛿𝑦 𝑛−1 2
  Lens maker formula
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒗
= (𝝁 − 𝟏) ( − ) 𝒎 =
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝒖

 Power of Lenses
Reciprocal of focal length in meter is
known as power of lens 𝒇 = √𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
 SI Unit : dioptre (D) 𝒙𝟏 = distance of object from first focus
1 100
 Power of lens :𝑷 = 𝑓(𝑚) = 𝑓(𝑐𝑚)
𝒙𝟐 = distance of image from second focus
dioptre

It is used for determination of focal length of

Two thin lens are placed in contact to each
convex lens in laboratory. A thin convex lens of
other focal length f is placed between an object and a
1 1 screen fixed at distance D apart.
Power of combination 𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 ⇒ 𝑓 = 𝑓 +
1
1
𝑓2

(i) For 𝐃 < 𝟒𝐟; u will be imaginary hence

physically no position of lens is possible
Use sign convention when solving numericals 𝐷
(ii) For 𝐃 = 𝟒𝐟; 𝑢 = 2 = 2𝑓 so only
Two thin lenses separated by distance position of lens is possible and since 𝑣 =
𝐷 − 𝑢 = 4𝑓 − 2𝑓 = 𝑢
1 1 1 𝑑 (iii) For 𝐃 > 𝟒𝐟;
= + −
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝐷−√𝐷(𝐷−4𝑓) 𝐷+√𝐷(𝐷−4𝑓)
𝑢1 = and 𝑢2 =
2 2

So there are two positions of lens for which real

image will be formed on the screen (for two
distance 𝑢1 and 𝑢2 of the object from lens)
If the distance between two positions of lens is x 𝐷−𝑥 𝐷+𝑥
so 𝑢1 = 𝑣2 = 2
and 𝑢2 = 𝑣1 = 2
;
then x = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝐼1 𝑣 𝐷+𝑥 𝐼2 𝑣 𝐷−𝑥
𝑚1 = = 𝑢1 = 𝐷−𝑥 and 𝑚2 = = 𝑢2 = 𝐷+𝑥
𝐷 + √𝐷(𝐷 − 4𝑓) 𝐷 − √𝐷(𝐷 − 4𝑓) 𝑂 1 𝑂 2
−
2 2 Now
= √𝐷(𝐷 − 4𝑓)
𝐷 + 𝑥 𝐷 − 𝑥 𝐼1 𝐼2
2
𝐷 −𝑥 2 𝑚1 × 𝑚2 = × ⇒ 2 =1⇒𝑂
𝐷−𝑥 𝐷+𝑥 𝑜
⇒ 𝑥 2 = 𝐷 2 − 4 𝐷𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 =
4𝐷 = √𝐼1 𝐼2
Distance of image corresponds to two positions Silvering of one surface of lens (use 𝑃𝑒𝑞 =
of the lens
2𝑃ℓ + 𝑃𝑚 )
1 𝑅
𝑣1 = 𝐷 − 𝑢1 = 𝐷 − [𝐷 − √𝐷(𝐷 − 4𝑓)] When plane surface is silvered 𝑓 = 2(𝜇−1)
2
1
= [𝐷 − √𝐷(𝐷 − 4𝑓)] = 𝑢2 ⇒ 𝑣1 = 𝑢2
2
1
𝑣2 = 𝐷 − 𝑢2 = 𝐷 − 2 [𝐷 + √𝐷(𝐷 − 4𝑓)]
1
= 2 [𝐷 − √𝐷(𝐷 − 4𝑓)] = 𝑢1 ⇒ 𝑣2 = 𝑢1
𝑅
Distances of object and image are When convex surface is silvered 𝑓 = 2𝜇
interchangeable. for the two positions of the lens,
Now
x = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 and D= 𝑣1 + 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 +𝑢1 [∴ 𝑣1 =
𝑢2

For simple microscope  Magnifying power when final image is

formed at D,
 Magnifying power when image is
formed at D: 𝑣0 𝐷
𝑀𝑃 = − (1 + )
𝑢0 𝑓0
𝐷
𝑀𝑃 = 1 +
𝑓  Tube length 𝐿 = 𝑉0 + |𝑢𝑒 |
 When final image is formed at infinity
 When image is formed at infinity :
𝒗 𝑫
𝐷 𝑀𝑃 = − 𝒖𝟎 × 𝒇 and 𝐿 = 𝑉0 + 𝑓𝑒
𝟎 𝟎
𝑀𝑃 =
𝑓 𝑓0
Astronomical Telescope: 𝑀𝑃 = −
𝒗 𝑫 𝑢0
For compound microscope: 𝑀𝑃 = − 𝒖𝟎 (𝒖 )
𝟎 𝟎
 Magnifying power when final image is
formed at D
 𝑓0 𝑓𝑒 1 1 1
𝑀𝑃 = − (1 + ) − = =P
𝑓𝑒 𝐷 N. P object f

 Tube length 𝐿 = 𝑓0 + |𝑢𝑒 |  For observing

 When final image is formed at infinity traffic at out back
we prefer to use a
𝑓
𝑀𝑃 = − 𝑓0 and 𝐿 = 𝑓0 + 𝑓𝑒 convex mirror
𝑒
because a convex
𝑓
 For terrestrial telescope: 𝑀𝑃 = − 𝑓0 mirror has amore
𝑒
larger field of view
and 𝐿 = 𝑓0 + 𝑓𝑒 + 4𝑓
𝑓 than a plane mirror or concave mirror.
 For Galilean telescope: 𝑀𝑃 = − 𝑓0 and  A ray incident along normal to a mirror
𝑒
𝐿 = 𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑒 retraces its path because in reflections
 Lens camera ;Time of exposure ∝ angle of incidence is always equal to
1 angle of reflection.
(𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒)2
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
 Images formed by mirrors do not show
𝑓 – number = 𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 chromatic aberration because focal
 for myopia or short –sightedness or length of mirror is independent of
near sightedness wavelength of light & refractive index of
medium.
 Light from an object falls on a concave
mirror forming a real image of the object.
If both the object and mirror are
immersed in water, there is no change in
the position of image because the
formation of image by reflection does not
depend on surrounding medium, there is
In its distant objects are not clearly visible but
no change in position of image provided
nearby objects are clearly visible because image
it is also formed in water.
is formed before the retina .To rectify this defect,
 The images formed by total internal
concave lens is used
reflections are much brighter than those
1 1 1 formed by mirrors and lenses because
− = = P: f = −F. P. there is no loss of intensity in total
F. P object f
internal reflection.
 For long –sightedness or  A fish inside a pond will see a person
hypermetropia outside taller than he is actually because
light bend away from the normal as it
enters water from air.
 A fish in water at depth h sees the whole
outside world in horizontal circle of
radius.
ℎ
𝑟 = ℎ tan 𝜃𝑐 =
In it nearby objects are not clearly visible and the √𝜇2 − 1
image of these objects is formed behind the  Just before setting, the sun may appear to
retina. To remove this defect, convex lens is used be elliptical due to refraction because
refraction of light ray through the
atmosphere may cause different
 magnification in mutually perpendicular both the surfaces of Sun glasses are
directions. curved in the same directions with same
 A lens have two principal focal lengths radii.
𝐴
which may differ because light can fall  Canchy’s equation 𝜇 = 𝜇0 + 2 where
𝜆
on either surface of the lens. The two
𝐴 > 0
principal focal lengths differ when
 Axial or longitudinal chromatic
medium on two sides have different
aberration = 𝑓𝑅 − 𝑓𝑉 = 𝜔𝑓𝑉 if the object
refractive indices.
is at infinity , then the longitudinal
 A convex lens behaves as a concave lens
chromatic aberration is equal to the
when placed in a medium of refractive
difference in focal lengths (𝑓𝑅 − 𝑓𝑉 ) for
index greater than the refractive index of
the red and the violet rays.
its material because light in that case will
 Achromatism
travel through the convex lens from
If two or more lenses are combined
denser to rarer medium. It will bend away
together in such a way that this
from the normal i.e, the convex lens
combination produces images due to all
would diverge the rays.
colours at the same point then this
 If lower half of a lens is covered with a
combination is known as achromatic
black paper ,the full image of the object
combination lenses.
is formed because every portion of lens
Condition for achromatism (when two
forms the full image of the object but
lenses are in contact)
sharpness of image decrees.
 Sun glasses have zero power even 𝜔1 𝜔2 𝜔1 𝑓1
+ =0⇒ =−
through their surfaces are curved because 𝑓1 𝑓2 𝜔2 𝑓2
 Chapter 22
WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT &
WAVE OPTIONS and have a
constant phase
difference w.r.t. time

Huygen's in 1678 assumed that a source

emits light in the form of waves.
Two sources are said to be
 Each point source of light is a
incoherent if they have different
centre of disturbance from which
frequency and initial phase
waves spread in all directions. The
difference is not constant w.r.t.
locus of all the particles of the
time.
medium vibrating in the same phase
at a given instant is called a
wavefront.
 Each point on a wave front is a
 Resultant intensity for coherent
source of new disturbance, called
sources
secondary wavelets. These wavelets
are spherical and travel with speed 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2√𝐼1 𝐼2 cos ∅0
of light in that medium.  Resultant intensity for incoherent
 The forward envelope of the sources 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
secondary wavelets at any instant  Intensity ∝ width of slit ∝
gives the new wavefront. (amplitude)²
2
 In homogeneous medium, the wave 𝐼1 𝑊1 𝑎12 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 (√𝐼1 + √𝐼2 )
front is always perpendicular to the ⇒ = = ⇒ =
𝐼2 𝑊2 𝑎22 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 (√𝐼 − √𝐼 )2
direction of wave propagation. 1 2
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 2
=( )
𝑎1 − 𝑎2
 Distance of 𝑛𝑡ℎ bright fringe 𝑥𝑛 =
𝑛𝜆𝐷
𝑑

Path difference = 𝑛𝜆 where 𝑛 =

Two sources will be coherent if and 1, 0, 2, 3, ….
only if they produce waves of same  Distance of 𝑛 th dark fringe 𝑥𝑛 =
(2𝑛−1)𝜆𝐷
frequency (and hence wavelength)
2𝑑
 Path difference = (2𝑛 − 1) 2
𝜆  For reflected Light:
Maxima → 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 =
where 𝑛 = 1, 0, 2, 3, ….
𝜆
𝜆𝐷 (2𝑛 + 1)
 Fringe width 𝛽 = 2
𝑑
𝛽 𝜆 Minima → 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 =
 Angular fringe width = 𝐷 = 𝑑
𝑛𝜆
𝐼 −𝐼
 Fringe visibility 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝐼 𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 100%  For transmitted
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥

 If a transparent sheets of refractive Light:

index 𝜇 and thickness 𝑡 is Maxima → 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 =
introduced in one of the paths of 𝑛𝜆
interfering waves, optical path will Minima → 2𝜇𝑡 cos 𝑟 =
𝜆
becomes ′𝜇𝑡′ instead of ′𝑡′. Entire (2𝑛 + 1)
2
fringe pattern is displaced by (𝑡 = thickness of film,
𝐷[(𝜇−1)𝑡] 𝛽
= 𝜆 (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 towards the 𝜇 = R.I. of the film)
𝑑
side in which the thin sheet is
introduced without any change in
fringe width.

 Fresnel's diffraction : In Fresnel's

diffraction, the source and screen
are placed close to the aperture or
the obstacle and light after
diffraction appears converging
towards the screen and hence no
lens is required to observed it. The
incident wave fronts are either
spherical or cylindrical.
 Fraunhofer’s diffraction : The
source and screen are placed at
large distances from the aperture or
the obstacle and converging lens is
used to observed the diffraction
 Path difference produced by a slab pattern. The incident wavefront is
∆𝑥 = (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 planar one.
𝛽
 Fringe shift, ∆𝑥 = 𝜆 (𝜇 − 1)𝑡 =  For minima : 𝑎 sin 𝜃𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆
𝐷  For maxima : 𝑎 sin 𝜃𝑛 = (2𝑛 +
(𝜇 − 1)𝑡 𝜆
𝑑
1) 2
 Number of fringes shift
𝐷  Linear width of central maxima
𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑡(𝜇−1) (𝜇−1)𝑡
𝑑
= 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝜆𝐷 = : 𝑊𝑥 =
2𝜆𝐷
𝜆
𝑑 𝑎
 Angular width of central
2𝜆
maxima : 𝑊𝜃 = 𝑎
  Intensity of maxima where 𝐼0 =
Intensity of central maxima 𝐼 =
𝛽 2
sin( ) 2𝜋
2
𝐼0 [ 𝛽 ] and 𝛽 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
2
𝜆 If we look at the blue portion of the sky
through a polaroid and rotate the polaroid,
the transmitted light shows rise and fall of
intensity.

If the vibrations of a wave are present in just

one direction in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, the wave is said to
be polarised or plane polarised. The
phenomenon of restricting the oscillations
of a wave to just one direction in the
transverse plane is called polarisation of
waves.

The scattered light screen in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of incidence
is found to be plane polarized.

 The law of
conservation of
energy holds
good in the
phenomenon of
interference.
 Fringes are neither image nor
The intensity of transmitted light passed shadow of slit but locus of a point
through an analyser is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 cos2 𝜃 which moves such a way that its
(𝜃 = angle between transmission path difference from the two
directions of polariser and analyser) sources remains constant.
 In YDSE the interference fringes
for two coherent point sources are
hyperboloids with axis 𝑆1 𝑆2.
Brewster's Law : The tangent of  If the interference experiment is
polarising angle of incidence at which repeated with bichromatic light, the
reflected light becomes completely plane fringes of two wavelengths will be
polarised is numerically equal to refractive coincident for the first time when
index of the medium 𝑛(𝛽)𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 = (𝑛 + 1)(𝛽)𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑖𝜌 = Brewster's angle and 𝑖𝜌 + 𝑟𝜌 = 90°  No interference pattern is detected
when two coherent sources are
 infinitely close to each other.  Limit of resolution for
1 1.22𝜆
Because 𝛽 ∝ 𝑑 microscope = 2𝜇 sin 𝜃 =
 If maximum number of maximas or 1
resolving powder
minimas are asked in the question,
use the fact that value of sin 𝜃 or  Limit of resolution for telescope
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝝀 1
cos 𝜃 can't be greater than 1. = = resolving powder
𝒂
𝑑
𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜆 ; Total maxima =
2𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 1
 Chapter 23
MODERN PHYSICS

 According to Planck the energy of a

photon is directly proportional to
the frequency of the radiation.
ℎ𝑐 12400𝐴 ℎ𝑐
 Generated in a discharge tube in 𝐸= 𝜆
= 𝜆
(𝑒𝑉) [∵
𝑒
=
which a high vacuum is maintained.
12400 (𝐴 − 𝑒𝑉)]
 They are electrons accelerated by 𝐸
high potential difference (10 to 15  Effective mass of photon 𝑚 = 𝑐 2 =
kV) ℎ𝑐 ℎ 1
= 𝑐𝜆 i.e., 𝑚 ∝ 𝜆
𝑐2𝜆
 K.E. of C.R. particle accelerated by So mass of violet light photon is
1 2 𝑝2
a p.d. V at 𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 = 2𝑚 greater than the mass of red light
 Can be deflected by Electric and photon. (∵ 𝜆𝑅 > 𝜆𝑉 ).
magnetic fields.  Linear momentum of photon 𝑝 =
𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ
= =𝜆
𝑐 𝑐

Ordered arrangement of the big family of

electro magnetic waves (EMW) either in 𝐸 𝑃
𝐼 = 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴 … (i)
ascending order of frequencies or
Here
decending order of wave lengths..
𝑃 = power of source,
Speed of E.M.W. in vaccum : 𝑐 = 3 ×
𝐴 = Area,
108 𝑚/𝑠 = 𝜈𝜆
𝑡 = Time taken
𝐸 = Energy incident in 𝑡 time = 𝑁ℎ𝑣
𝑁 = no. of photon incident in 𝑡 time
𝑁(ℎ𝑣) 𝑛(ℎ𝑣)
Intensity 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴 … (ii)
𝑁
[∵ 𝑛 = = no. of photon per sec. ]
𝑡
From eq. (i) and (ii),
𝑃 𝑛(ℎ𝑣) 𝑃 𝑃𝜆
= ⇒ =
𝐴 𝐴 ℎ𝑣 ℎ𝑐
= 5 × 1024 𝐽−1 𝑚−1 × 𝑃 × 𝜆
A beam of EMW is a stream of discrete
packets of energy called PHOTONS; each
photon having a frequency v
2ℎ 2𝑃
∴ 𝐹 = 𝑛(𝜆) = and
𝑐
𝐹 2𝑃 2𝐼 𝑃
Pressure = 𝐴 = 𝑐𝐴 = [∵ 𝐼 = 𝐴]
and energy = 𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 where ℎ = planck’s 𝑐

constant = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽 − 𝑠.

 𝑃 𝑃𝜆  Number of electrons emitted per
𝐹= (∵ 𝑛 = )
𝑐 ℎ𝑐 second depends on the intensity of
and the incident light.
𝐹 𝑃 1
Pressure = 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑐

Photon energy = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 of electron +

work function ℎ𝜈 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + ∅
∅ = Work function = energy needed by the
electron in freeing itself from the atoms of
the metal ∅ = ℎ𝜈0.

The minimum value of the retarding

potential to prevent electron emission is
𝑒Ccut off = (𝐾𝐸)𝑚𝑎𝑥 .
𝐼𝐴 cos 2 𝜃 Note: The number of photons incident on a
𝐹=
𝑐 surface per unit time per unit area is called
photon flux.

The phenomenon of the emission of

electrons. when metals are exposed to light
(of a certain minimum frequency) is called
photo electric effect.

 Can be explained only on the basis

of the quantum theory (concept of
photon)
 Electrons are emitted if the incident
light has frequency 𝜈 ≥ 𝜈0
(threshold frequency). Emission of
electrons is independent of
intensity. The wave length
corresponding to 𝜈0 is called
threshold wave length 𝜆0 .
 𝜈0 is different for different metals.
 ℎ ∅0
∵ 𝑒𝑉0 = ℎ𝜈 − ∅0 ; 𝑉0 = ( ) 𝜈 − ( )
𝑒 𝑒
ℎ
Slope = 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 = 𝑒 (same for all
metals)
Quantum Efficiency
Quantum efficiency =
No. of electron emitted per second
Total no. of photon incident per second
ne
=
nph
𝑛𝑒
𝑥=
𝑛𝑝ℎ
If quantum efficiency is 𝑥% then 𝑛𝑒 =
𝑥
𝑛
100 𝑝ℎ
Here, 𝑛𝑝ℎ = (5 × 1024 𝐽−1 𝑚−1 )𝑃𝜆
Photoelectronic cureent
Charge 𝑄
Graph between (𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) and frequency 𝐼= = = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑛𝑒
Time 𝑡
(𝐾)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − ∅0
Comparing with equation, 𝑌 = 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑐
slope = 𝑚 = tan 𝜃 = ℎ (same for all
metals) Beams of electrons and other forms of
(∅0 ) > (∅0 )𝐴 matter exhibit wave properties including
interference and diffraction with a de
ℎ
Broglie wave length given by 𝜆 = 𝑝 (wave
length of a particle)
De Broglie wavelength associated with
moving particles
If a particle of mass m moving with velocity
𝑣. Kinetic energy of the particle
1 𝑝2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 2𝑚
Graph between stopping potential (𝑽𝟎 )
momentum of particle 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = √2𝑚𝐸
and frequency (𝝂)
the wave length associated with the
particles is
ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜆= = =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 √2𝑚𝐸
De Broglie wavelength associated with
the charged particles
 For an Electron
12.27 × 10−10 12.27
𝜆𝑒 = 𝑚= 𝐴
√𝑉 √𝑉
 1 (c) Bohr atomic model : Bohr adopted
So, 𝜆 ∝
√𝑉
Rutherford model of the atom &
 For Proton
added some arbitrary conditions.
0.286 × 10−10 0.286
𝜆𝑝 = 𝑚= 𝐴 These conditions are known as his
√𝑉 √𝑉 postulates.
 For Deuteron  The electron in a stable orbit does
0.202
𝜆𝑑 = 𝐴 not radiate energy.
√𝑉  A stable orbit is that in which the
 For 𝜶 Particles angular momentum of the electron
0.101
∴ 𝜆𝛼 = 𝐴 about nucleus is an integral (𝑛)
√𝑉 ℎ
multiple of i.e., 𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
ℎ
𝑛 2𝜋 ; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … (𝑛 ≠ 0)
 The electron can absorb or radiate
(a) Thomson model : (Plum pudding energy only if the electron jumps
model) from a lower to a higher orbit or
 Most of the mass and all the positive falls from a higher to a lower orbit.
charge of an atom is uniformly  The energy emitted or absorbed is a
distributed over the full size of atom light photon of frequency 𝜈 and of
(10−10 𝑚). energy. 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂
 Electrons are studded in this
uniform distribution.
 Failed to explain the large angle
scattering a particle scattered by (Z=atomic no. = 1)
thin foils of matter.  𝐿𝑛 = angular momentum in the nth
ℎ
(b) Rutherford model : (Nuclear orbit 𝑛 2𝜋
Model)  𝑟𝑛 = radius of 𝑛𝑡ℎ circular orbit
 The most of the mass and all the = (0.529𝐴)𝑛2 ⇒ 𝑟𝑛 ∝ 𝑛2
positive charge is concentrated 𝐸𝑛 =Energy of the electron in the
within a size of 10−14 𝑚 inside the 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit
atom. −13.6𝑒𝑉 1
This concentration is called the = 2
⇒ 𝐸𝑛 ∝ 2
𝑛 𝑛
atomic nucleus. Note: Total energy of the electron in an
 The electron revolves around the atom is negative, indicating that it is bound.
nucleus under electric interaction 13.6𝑒𝑣
Binding Energy (𝐵𝐸)𝑛 = −𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛2
between them in circular orbits.
 𝐸𝑛 2 − 𝐸𝑛1 = Energy emitted when
 An accelerating charge radiates the
an electron jumps from 𝑛2 𝑡ℎ orbit
nucleus spiralling inward and
(𝑛2 > 𝑛1 )
finally fall into the nucleus, which
1 1
does not happen in an atom. This ∆𝐸 = (13.6𝑒𝑉) [ 2 − 2 ]
could not be explained by this 𝑛1 𝑛2
model. ∆𝐸 = ℎ𝜈; 𝜈 = frequency of spectral
line emitted
 1 1
 = wave no. [no. of waves in unit In the far infrared region 𝜈̅ = 𝑅 [52 −
𝜆
1 1 1
length (1𝑚)] = 𝑅 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ] ] ; 𝑛2 > 5
1 2 𝑛22
Where 𝑅 = Rydberg’s constant, In all these series 𝑛2 = 𝑛 + 1 is the 𝛼 line
for hydrogen = 1.097 × 107 𝑚−1 = 𝑛1 + 2 is the 𝛽 line
 For hydrogen like atom/species of = 𝑛1 + 3 is the 𝜆 line … etc.
atomic number 𝑍: where 𝑛1 = Landing orbit
𝐵𝑜ℎ𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 2 Total emission spectral lines
𝑟𝑛𝑧 = 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛−1)
𝑍 From 𝑛1 = 𝑛 to 𝑛2 = 1 state =
𝑛2 2
= (0.529𝐴° ) ; From 𝑛1 = 𝑛 to 𝑛2 = 𝑚 state =
𝑍 (𝑛−𝑚)(𝑛−𝑚+1)
𝑍2 (
2
)
𝐸 = (−13.6) 2 𝑒 𝑉
𝑛 Excitation potential of atom
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑍 2 ; Rydberg's constant for Excitation potential for quantum jump from
element of atomic no. Z. 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1
Note : If motion of the nucleus is also 𝑛1 → 𝑛2 =
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
considered. then m is replaced by p. Where Ionization energy of hydrogen atom
pi= reduced mass of electron nucleus The energy required to remove an electron
system = 𝑚𝑀/ (𝑚 + 𝑀) from an atom. The energy required to ionize
𝑍2 𝜇
 In this case 𝐸𝑛 = (1.36 𝑒𝑉) 𝑛2 . 𝑚 hydrogen atom is = 0 − (−13.6) =
𝑒
13.6𝑒𝑉
Ionization Potential
Potential difference through which a free
electron is moved to gain ionization energy
 Lyman Series : (Landing orbit 𝑛 = −En
1) =
electronic charge
1 1
Ultravoilet region 𝜈̅ = 𝑅 [12 − 𝑛2 ] ; 𝑛2 > 1  X -rays are produced by bombarding
2
high speed electrons on a target of
 Balmer Series : (Landing orbit 𝑛 =
high atomic weight and high
2)
1 1 melting point.
Visible region 𝜈̅ = 𝑅 [22 − 𝑛2 ] ; 𝑛2 > 2  Short wavelength (0.1 𝐴 to 10 𝐴)
2

 Paschan Series : (Landing orbit electromagnetic radiation.

𝑛 = 3)  Are produced when a metal anode is
1 bombarded by very high energy
In the near infrared region 𝜈̅ = 𝑅 [ −
32
1
electrons.
] ; 𝑛2 > 3  Are not affected by electric and
𝑛22
 Brackett Series : (landing orbit magnetic field
𝑛 = 4)  They cause photoelectric emission
In the mid infrared region 𝜈̅ = 𝑅 [42 −
1 Characteristics equation 𝑒𝑉 =
1
ℎ𝑣𝑚
] ; 𝑛2 > 4 𝑒 = electron charge:
𝑛22
 Pfund Series : (Landing orbit 𝑛 = 𝑉 = accelerating potential
5)
 𝜈 = maximum frequency of X - 1 1 1
4. = 𝑅𝑍 2 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ]
𝜆 1 2
radiation
 Intensity of X-rays depends on
number of electrons hitting the
target.
 Cut off wavelength or minimum 1. For many electron species
wavelength where 𝑉 (in volts) is the 1
2. ∆𝐸 = 13.6(𝑍 − 𝑏)2 [𝑛2 −
p.d. applied to the tube 𝜆𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1
12400 1
𝐴 ] 𝑒𝑉
𝑉 𝑛22
 Continuous spectrum due to 3. 𝜈 = 𝑅𝑐(𝑍 − 𝑏)2 = [𝑛2 −
1

retardation of electrons. 1
1
Characteristic X-rays ]
𝑛22
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 1 1 1
For 𝐾𝛼 , 𝜆 = 𝐸 For 𝐾𝛽 , 𝜆 = 𝐸 4. = 𝑅(𝑍 − 𝑏)2 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ]
2 −𝐸𝐿 𝐿 −𝐸𝑀 𝜆 1 2

Moseley's law for characteristic Diffraction of X-ray

spectrum Diffraction of X-ray take place according
Frequency of characteristic line, √𝜈 = to Bragg's law 2𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
𝑎(𝑍 − 𝑏)
Where 𝑎, 𝑏 are constant, for 𝐾𝛼
line 𝑏 = 1
𝑍 = atomic number of target
𝜈 = frequency of characteristic
spectrum
𝑏 = screening constant
(for 𝐾 - series 𝑏 = 1, 𝐿 series
b=7.4), 𝑑 = spacing of crystal plane or lattice
constant or distance between adjacent
𝑎 = proportionally constant
atomic plane
𝜃 = Bragg's angle or glancing angle
∅ = Diffracting angle 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 …

1. For single electron species For Maximum Wavelength

1
2. ∆𝐸 = 13.6𝑍 2 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ] 𝑒𝑉
1 sin 𝜃 = 1, 𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑑
1 2
1 1 so if 𝜆 > 2𝑑 diffraction is not possible
3. 𝜈 = 𝑅𝑐𝑍 2 = [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ] i.e. solution of Bragg's equation is not
1 2
possible.
 Binding energy = –[Total Mechanical Energy]
 Velocity of electron in 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit for hydrogen atom
𝑐
≅ 137𝑛 ; 𝑐 = speed of light
 Series limit means minimum wave length of that
series.
 In 1938 by Hahn and Strassmann.
By attack of a particle splitting of a
heavy nucleus (𝐴 > 230) into two
We can represent a nuclear collision or morelighter nuclie. In this
or reaction by the following process certain mass disappears
notation, which means X(a,b) Y which is obtained in the form of
energy (enormous amount)
𝑎+𝑋 →𝑌+𝑏
𝐴 + 𝑝 → excited nucleus → 𝐵 +
We can apply:
𝐶+𝑄
(i) Conservation of momentum (ii)
Conservation of charge (iii)
Conservation of mass-energy
For any nuclear rection:
It is the phenomenum of fusing two
𝑎+𝑋 →𝑌+𝑏 two or more lighter nuclie to from a
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 𝐾4 single heavy nucleus.
By mass energy conservation 𝐴 + 𝐵 → 𝐶 + 𝑄 (Energy)
(i) 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 + (𝑚𝑎 + The product (C) is more stable then
𝑚𝑥 )𝑐 2 = 𝐾3 + 𝐾4 + reactants (A and B) and 𝑚𝑐 <
(𝑚𝑌 + 𝑚𝑏 )𝑐 2 (𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏 )
(ii) Energy released in any and mass defect ∆𝑚 = [(𝑚𝑎 +
nuclear reaction or 𝑚𝑏 ) − 𝑚𝑐 ] amu
collision is called Q
Energy released is 𝐸=
value of the reaction.
∆𝑚931 𝑀𝑒𝑉
(iii) 𝑄 = (𝐾3 + 𝐾4 ) − (𝐾1 +
𝐾2 ) The total binding energy and
= ∑𝐾𝑃 − ∑𝐾𝑅 binding energy per nucleon C both
= (∑𝑚𝑅 − ∑𝑚𝑃 )𝑐 2 are more than of A and B.
(iv) If Q is positive, energy is ∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑐 − (𝐸𝑎 + 𝐸𝑏 )
released and products
are more stable in
comparison to reactants.
(v) If Q is negative, energy
 Radioactive Decays:
is absorbed and products
Generally, there are three
are less stable in
types of radioactive decays
comparison tp reactants.
𝑄 (i) 𝛼 decay (ii) 𝛽 − and 𝛽 + decay
= ∑(𝐵. 𝐸. )𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 (iii) 𝜆 decay
− ∑(𝐵. 𝐸. )𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠  𝛼 decay: By emitting a
particle, the nucleus
decreases its mass number
and move towards stability.
 Nucleus having A>210 1
 Average life : 𝑡𝑎𝑣 = 𝜆
shows a decay.
 Within duration 𝑡1 ⇒ 50%
 𝛽 decay : In beta decay, 2

either a neutron is converted of 𝑁0 decayed and 50% of

into proton or proton is 𝑁0 remains active.
converted into neutron.  Within duration 𝑡𝑎𝑣 =
 𝜆 decay : When an 𝛼 or 𝛽 63% of 𝑁0 decayed and
decay takes place, the 37% of 𝑁0 remains active
daughter nucleus is usually  Activity 𝑅 = 𝑁 = 𝑅0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
in higher energy state, such  1 Bq = 1 decay/s,
a nucleus comes to ground  1 curie = 3.7 × 101° Bq,
state by emitting a photon or  1 ruthe rford = 106 Bq
photons.  After 𝑛 half lives Number of
Order of energy of 𝜆 photon 𝑁
nuclei left = 2𝑛0
is 100 𝑘𝑒𝑉
 Probability of a nucleus for
 Laws of Radioactive 𝑁
survival of time 𝑡 = 𝑁 =
Decay : The rate of 0

disintegration is directly 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 −𝜆𝑡

=𝑒
𝑁0
proportional to the number
of radioactive atoms present
at that time i.e., rate of decay
∝ number of nuclei.
Rate of decay = 𝜆 (number of
𝑑𝑁
nuclei) i.e. = −𝜆𝑁 where 𝜆 is
𝑑𝑡 Let initial number of nuclie of A
called the decay constant. is 𝑁0 then at any time number
This equation may be expressed in of nuclie of A, B and C are given
𝑑𝑁
the form = −𝜆𝑑𝑡. by
𝑁
𝑑𝑁𝐴
𝑁 𝑡 𝑁0 = 𝑁𝐴 + 𝑁𝐵 + 𝑁𝐶 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑁 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
∫ = −𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ ln ( ) 𝑑
− 𝑑𝑡 (𝑁𝐵 + 𝑁𝐶 )
𝑁 𝑁0
𝑁0 0
= −𝜆𝑡 A disintegrates into B and C by
emitting 𝛼, 𝛽 particles.
where 𝑁0 is the number of parent
𝑑𝑁𝐵 𝑑𝑁𝐶
nuclei at 𝑡 = 0 . The number that Now, = −𝜆1 𝑁𝐴 and =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
survives at time 𝑡 is therefore −𝜆2 𝑁𝐴
−𝜆𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 and 𝑡= 𝑑
⇒ 𝑑𝑡 (𝑁𝐵 + 𝑁𝐶 ) = −(𝜆1 +
2.303 𝑁
log10 ( 𝑁0 ) 𝜆2 )𝑁𝐴
𝜆 𝑡

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 where 𝜆 = decay 𝑑𝑁𝐴

⇒ = −(𝜆1 + 𝜆2 )𝑁𝐴
constant 𝑑𝑡
𝑙 𝑛2 = 𝜆𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝜆1 + 𝜆2
 Half life: 𝑡1 =
2 𝜆
 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
 Note:
1𝑢 = 1.66 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
= 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐 2
 Binding energy of Z𝑿𝑨
𝑡 𝑡 𝐵𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 = [𝑍𝑚𝑝 +
⇒ 𝑡𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑡 1+𝑡2
1 2 (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − 𝑚𝑋 ]𝑐 2
= [𝑍𝑚𝐻 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 −
𝑚𝑋 ]𝑐 2
 Q-value of a nuclear
reaction
For 𝑎 + 𝑋 → 𝑌 + 𝑏 or
𝑋(𝑎, 𝑏)𝑌;
𝑑𝑁𝐴
= 𝛼 − 𝜆𝑁𝐴 … (i) 𝑄 = (𝑀𝛼 + 𝑀𝑋 − 𝑀𝑌 −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁𝐴 𝑀𝑏 )𝑐 2
when 𝑁𝐴 is maximum =  Radius of the nucleous
𝑑𝑡
0 ⇒ 𝛼 − 𝜆𝑁𝐴 = 0, 1
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴3 where 𝑅0 =
𝛼 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑁𝐴 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜆
= 𝜆
1.2𝑓𝑚 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚
By equation (i)  From Bohr Model
𝑡 𝑑𝑁 𝑡
𝑛1 = 1, 𝑛2 = 2, 3, 4 … 𝐾
∫0 𝛼−𝜆𝑁𝐴 = ∫0 𝑑𝑡, No. of nuclie series
𝐴
𝛼
is 𝑁𝐴 = (1 − 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ) 𝑛1 = 2, 𝑛2 = 3,4,5 … 𝐿
𝜆
series
 Equivalence of mass 𝑛1 = 3, 𝑛2 = 4,5,6 … 𝑀
and energy series
 Chapter 24
SEMICONDUCTOR & DIGITAL
ELECTRONICS

Properties Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Resistivit 10−2 − 10−8 Ω𝑚 10−5 − 1011
y 106 Ω𝑚 − 1019 Ω𝑚
Conducti 102 − 108 𝑚ℎ𝑜/ 10−6 − 10−19
vity 𝑚 105 𝑚ℎ𝑜/𝑚 − 10−11 𝑚ℎ𝑜
/𝑚
Temp. Positive Negative Negative
Coefficie
nt of
resistance
(𝛼)
Current Due to free Due to No current
electrons electrons and
holes
Energy
bend
diagram

Forbidde ≅ 0𝑒𝑉 ≤ 3𝑒𝑉 > 3𝑒𝑉

n ebergy v = Vm sin 𝜔𝑡
gap
Example 𝑃𝑡, 𝐴𝑙, 𝐶𝑢, 𝐴𝑔 𝐺𝑒, 𝑆𝑖, 𝐺𝑎𝐴𝑠, 𝐺𝑎𝐹2 Wood, plastic,
Diamond, Mica
 Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band :
𝟑 ∆𝑬𝒈
𝒏 = 𝑨𝑻𝟐 𝒆−𝟐𝒌𝑻
 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS :
  MASS ACTION LAW : 𝑛12 = 𝑛𝑒 × 𝑛ℎ
o For N-type semiconductor 𝑛𝑒 ≃ 𝑁𝐷
o For P-type semiconductor 𝑛ℎ ≃ 𝑁𝐴
CONDUCTION IN SEMICONDUCTOR
Intrinsic semiconductor P – type N – type
𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ 𝑛ℎ ≫ 𝑛𝑒 𝑛𝑒 ≫ 𝑛ℎ
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒[𝑣𝑒 + 𝑣ℎ ] 𝐽 ≅ 𝑒𝑛ℎ 𝑣ℎ 𝐽 ≅ 𝑛𝑒 𝑣𝑒
(Current density) 1 1
1 = ≅ 𝑒𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ = ≅ 𝑒 𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒
σ = ρ = 𝑒𝑛[𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ρ ρ
(Conductivity)

Where Here covalent bonds

covalent of depletion layers
bonds of are broken by
depletion Collision of
layer, itself “Minorities” which
break, due to high electric field aquire high kinetic energy from high
of very high Reverse bias electric field of very-very high reverse
voltage. bias voltage.
This phenomena takes place in This phenomena takes place in
(i) P – N junction having (i) P – N junction having “Low
“High doping” doping”
(ii) P – N junction having (ii) P – N junction having thick
thin depletion layer depletion layer
Here P – N junction does not Here P – N junction damages
damage permanently permanently due to abruptly
“In D.C voltage stabilizer increment of minorities during
zener phenomena is used”. repeatative collisions.

APPLICATION OF DIODE
Zener diode : It is highly doped 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction diode used as a voltage
regulator.
Photo diode : A 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction diode use to detect light signals
operated in reverse bias.
LED : A 𝑝 − 𝑛 junction device that emits optical radiation under
forward bias conditions
Solar cell : Generates emf of its own due to the effect of sun radiations.
 RECTIFIER EFFICIENCY :
RIPPLE FACTOR : 𝑷𝒅𝒄 𝑰𝟐𝒅𝒄 𝑹𝑳
𝜼= =
𝑰𝒂𝒄 𝑷𝒂𝒄 𝑰𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 (𝑹𝑭 + 𝑹𝑳 )
𝒓= For HWR :
𝑰𝒅𝒄
𝟒𝟎.𝟔
 For HWR 𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏 𝜼% = 𝑹𝑭 &
𝟏+𝑹
 For FWR 𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟖 𝟏
𝟖𝟏.𝟐
FWR 𝜼% = 𝑹
𝟏+𝑹𝑭
𝟏

FOR TRANSISTOR
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰 𝑪
 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS
1. Common Base (CB) 2. Common Emitter (CE)
3. Common Collector (CC)
CB CE CC

Input Low (100Ω) High (750Ω) Very High ≅

Resista 750 𝑘Ω
nce
Output Very High High Low
Resista
nce
Current (𝐴1 or 𝛼) (𝐴1 or 𝛽) (𝐴1 or 𝛾)
Gain 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐸
𝛼= <1 𝛽= >1 𝛾= >1
𝐼𝐸 𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵
Voltage 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴𝑉 =
Gain 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐿
= = =
𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝑖 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝑖 𝐼𝐸 𝑅𝑖
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿
𝐴𝑣 = 𝛼 𝐴𝑣 = 𝛽 𝐴𝑣 = 𝛾
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
≅ 150 ≅ 500 <1
Power 𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜
𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 = 𝐴𝑝 =
Gain 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝐿 𝑅 𝐿
= 𝛼2 = 𝛽2 = 𝛾2
𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖
Phase Same phase Opposite Same phase
differen phase
ce
(betwee
n output
and
input)
Applica For High For Audible For
tion Frequency Frequency Impedance
Frequency
 TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Input Resistance (𝒓𝟏 ) Current amplification factor

(
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
) (For CE)  For CE 𝛽𝑎𝑐 =
∆𝑙𝐵 𝑉𝐶𝐸=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑙𝐶
(∆𝑙 )
𝐵
Output Resistance (𝒓𝟎 ) 𝑉𝐶𝐸=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

∆𝑉𝐶𝐸  For CB 𝛼𝑎𝑐 =

( ) (For CE) ∆𝑙𝐶
∆𝑙𝐶 𝐼𝐵=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (∆𝑙 )
𝐸 𝑉𝐶𝐵=𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTORS

There are three regions of * Power gain 𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝑉 × 𝛽𝑎𝑐

transistor opertaion:  Transistor as a switch
 Cut off region * Action A transistor can be used as a switch
region * Saturation region if it is operated in its cutoff and
 Transistor as Voltage saturation states only
amplifier
 Transistor as an
* To operate it as an amplifier we Oscillator
need to fix its operating voltage
An oscillator is a generator of an ac signal
somewhere in active region where it
using positive feedback.
increases the strength of input ac
1
signal and produces an amplified Frequency of osccilations if 𝑓 = 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
output signal.
𝑉
 Relation between 𝜶, 𝜷 and
* Voltage gain 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉0 = 𝜸:
1
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡
−𝛽𝑎𝑐 𝛼 1
𝑅𝑖𝑛 𝛽= , 𝛾 = 1 + 𝛽, 𝛾 =
1−𝛼 1−𝛼
 SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES

Na Sy Bo Truth table Ele Cir

me mb ole ctri cui
ol an cal t
Ex ana dia
pr log gra
ess ue m
io
n
OR 𝑌 A B Y
=𝐴+𝐵 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AN 𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵 A B Y
D 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
NO 𝑌 = 𝐴̅ A Y
T or 0 1
Inve
1 0
rter
NO 𝑌 A B Y
R =𝐴̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+𝐵 0 0 1
(OR
0 1 0
+N
OT) 1 0 0
1 1 0
NA ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵 A B Y
ND 0 0 1
(AN 0 1 1
D+ 1 0 1
NO
1 1 0
T)
XO 𝑌 = 𝐴⨁𝐵 A B Y
R Or 0 0 0
(Ex 𝑌 0 1 1
clus = 𝐴. 𝐵 1 0 1
ive + 𝐴𝐵
OR) 1 1 0

XN 𝑌 = 𝐴⨀𝐵 A B Y
OR Or 0 0 1
(exc 𝑌 0 1 0
lusi = 𝐴. 𝐵 1 0 0
ve + 𝐴̅. 𝐵̅
NO 1 1 1
Or
R)
𝑌=
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴⨁𝐵
 Chapter 25
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Faithful transmission of information from one place to another place is called

communication.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 Transmitter : Transmitter converts the message signal produced by

information source into a form (e.g. electrical signal) that is suitable for
transmission through the channel to the receiver.
 Communication channel : Communication channel is a medium (transmission
line, an optical fibre or free space etc) which connects a receiver and a
transmitter. It carries the modulated wave from the transmitter to the receiver.
 Receiver : It receives and decode the signal into original form.

 Transducer : Transducer is is called an analog

the device that converts one signal. A decimal
form of energy into another. number with system
Microphone, photo base 10 is used to
detectors and piezoelectric deal with analog
sensors are types of signal.
transducer.  Digital Signal : A
 Signal : Signal is the signal that can have
information converted in only discrete
electrical form. Signals can stepwise values is
be analog or digital. Sound called a digital
and picture signals in TV are signal. A binary
analog. number system with
It is defined as a single- base 2 is used to deal
valued function of time with digital signals.
which has a unique value at (See Fig. 1)
every instant of time.  Noise : There are unwanted
 Analog Signal : A signals that tend to disturb
continuously the transmission and
varying signal processing of message
(Voltage or Current) signals. The source of noise
 can be inside or outside the  Range : It is the largest
system. distance between the source
 Attenuation : It is the loss and the destination upto
of strength of a signals while which the signal is received
propagating through a with sufficient strength.
medium. It is like damping  Repeater : A repeater acts
of oscillations. as a receiver and a
 Amplification : It is the transmitter. A repeater picks
process of increasing the up the signal which is
amplitude (and therefore the coming from the transmitter,
rtrength) of a signal using an amplifies and retransmits it
electronic circuit called the sometime with a change in
amplifier. Amplification is carrier frequency. Repeaters
absolutely necessary to are necessary to extend the
compensate for the range of a communication
attenuation of the signal in system as shown in figure A
communication systems. communication satellite is
basically a repeater station
in space. (See Fig. 2).

Different signals used in a communication system such as voice, music, picture.

computer data etc. all have different ranges of frequency. The difference of maximum
and minimum frequency in the range of each signal is called bandwidth of that signal.
Bandwidth can be of message signal as well as of transmission medium.
(i) Bandwidth for analog (ii) Bandwidth for digital
signals : signals :
Bandwidth for some analog signals Basically digital signals are rectangular
are listed below waves and these can be splited into a
superposition of sinusoidal waves of
frequencies 𝜈0 , 2𝜈0 , 3𝜈0 , 4𝜈0 , 𝑛𝜈0 ,
where 𝑛 is an integer extending to
infinity. This implies that the infinite
band width is required to reproduce the
 rectangular waves. However, for are neglected for limiting the
practical purposes, higher harmonics bandwidth.

Different types of transmission media offer different band width of which some are listed below
Service Frequency Range Remarks
1 Wire (most common: 750 MHz Normally operated below 18 GHz
Coaxial Cable) (Bandwidth)
2 Free space (radio waves) 540 kHz – 4.2 GHz
(i) Standard AM 540 kHz to 30 MHz
(ii) FM 88-108 MHz
(iii) Television 54-72 MHz VHF (Very High Frequencies) TV
76-88 MHz UHF (Ultra High Frequencies) TV
174-216 MHz
420-890 MHz
(iv) Cellular mobile radio 896-901 MHz Mobile to base station
840-935 MHz Base station to mobile
(v) Satellite 5.925-6.425 GHz Uplinking
Communication 3.7-4.2 GHz Downlinking
3 Optical communication 1 THz -1000 THz One single optical fibre offers
using fibres (microwaves – ultra bandwidth > 100 GHz
violet)

(a) The radio waves which travel field due to the wave induce charges
through atmosphere following the in the earth's surface. As the wave
surface of earth are known as travels, the induced charges in the
ground waves or surface waves and earth also travel along it. This
their propagation is called ground constitutes a current in the earth's
wave propagation or surface wave surface. As the ground wave passes
propagation. These waves are over the surface of the earth, it is
vertically polarised in order to weakened as a result of energy
prevent short-circuiting of the absorbed by the earth. Due to these
electric component. The electrical losses the ground waves are not
 suited for very long range ionosphere and returns to the earth
communication. Further these is called critical frequency. It is
losses are higher for high frequency. given by 𝑓𝑐 = 9√𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 , where 𝑁 is
Hence. ground wave propagation can be the number density of electron/m³.
sustained only at low frequencies (500 kHz (a) The space waves are the radio
to 1500 kHz) waves of very high frequency (i.e.
(b) The ground wave transmission
becomes weaker with increase in
frequency because more absorption
of ground waves takes place at between 30 MHz. to 300 MHz or
higher frequency during more).
propagation through atmosphere. (b) The space waves can travel through
(c) The ground wave propagation is atmosphere from transmitter
suitable for low and medium antenna to receiver antenna either
frequency i.e. upto 2 MHz only. directly or after reflection from
(d) The ground wave propagation is ground in the earth's troposphere
generally used for local band region. That is why the space wave
broadcasting and is commonly propagation is also called as
called medium wave. tropospherical propagation or line
The maximum range of ground or of sight propagation.
surface wave propagation depends (c) The range of communication of
on two factors: space wave propagation can be
(i) The frequency of the radio waves
and (ii) Power of the transmitter.

(a) The sky waves are the radio waves

of frequency between 2 MHz to 30
MHz.
(b) The ionospheric layer acts as a
reflector for a certain range of increased by increasing the heights
frequencies (3 to 30 MHz). of transmitting and receiving
Therefore it is also called has antenna.
ionospheric propagation or short (d) Height of transmitting Antenna:
wave propagation. Electromagnetic The transmitted waves. travelling in
waves of frequencies higher than 30 a straight line,
MHz penetrate the ionosphere and directly reach the received end and
escape. are then picked
(c) The highest frequency of radio up by the receiving antenna as
waves which when sent straight (i.e. shown in figure.
normally) towards the layer of
ionosphere gets reflected from
Due to finite curvature of the earth, such 𝑑𝑀 = √2𝑅ℎ𝑇 + √2𝑅ℎ𝑅
waves cannot be seen beyond the tangent
points S and T.
where :
(𝑅 + ℎ)2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑑2
As 𝑅 > > ℎ . So ℎ2 + 2𝑅ℎ = 𝑑2 ⇒ 𝑑 =
√2𝑅ℎ.
Area covered for TV transmission :
R = radius of earth (approximately 6400
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑑 2 = 2𝜋𝑅ℎ
km)
Population covered = population density ×
ℎ𝑇 = height of transmitting antenna
area covered
If height of receiving antenna is also given ℎ𝑅 = height of receiving antenna
in the question then the maximum line of
sight.

The phenomenon of
superposition of
information signal over
a
high frequency carrier
wave is called
modulation. In this
process, amplitude,
frequency or phase
angle
of a high frequency
carrier wave is
modified
in accordance with the
instantaneous value of
the low frequency
information signal .

𝛾
should be 4 where 𝛾 is wavelength
of modulating signal. This
 To avoid interference: if many minimum size becomes
modulating signals travel directly impracticable because the
through the same transmission frequency of the modulating signal
channel, they will interfere with can be upto 5 kHz which
each other and result in distortion. corresponds to a wavelength of
108
 To design antennas of practical 3× × 103 = 60 𝑘𝑚. This will
5
size: The minimum height of require an antenna of the minimum
antenna (not of antenna tower)
 𝛾
height of 4 = 15 km. This size of so the amplitude of AM wave =
an antenna is not practical. 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑚𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 & frequency of
𝜔
 Effective Power Radiated by an AM wave = 2𝜋𝑐
Antenna : A theoretical study of Therefore, 𝑣 = [𝑉𝑐 (1 +
radiation from a linear antenna 𝑚) cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡] cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
(length 𝑙 ) shows that the power 𝑚𝑉𝐶
⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑉𝐶 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos(𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 ) 𝑡
radiated is proportional to 2
𝑙 2
(frequency)² i.e. (𝛾) . For a good
transmission, we need high powers
and hence this also points out to 𝑉2
 𝐶
Power of carrier wave : 𝑃𝐶 = 2𝑅
the need of using high frequency
where R = resistance of antenna in
transmission.
which power is dissipated.
 Total power of side bands :
1 𝑚𝑉𝐶 2
𝑃𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 2 × 2𝑅 ( ) =
2
𝑚2
𝑃𝑐
2
 Total power of AM wave =
𝑚2
𝑃𝑐 (1 + )
2
 Fraction of total power carried by
𝑚2
sidebands = 2+𝑚2

When the frequency of carries wave is

changed in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating
signal, it is called frequency modulation.
Modulation factor,
amplitude of moduling wave
m=
amplitude of carrier wave
If 𝑣𝑚 = 𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 and 𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝑉𝑚
then 𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐
 As amplitude of the of the carrier
wave varies at signal frequency 𝑓𝑚

 Modulation factor : max. frequency deviation

m=
Modulating frequency
 ∆𝑓 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥. − 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐 − called the carrier wing ⇒ 𝐶𝑆 =
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛. ; 𝑣𝐹𝑀 = 𝑉𝑐 cos[𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 2 × ∆𝑓
𝑚𝑓 cos 𝜔𝑚 𝑡]  Side Bands :
 Carrier Swing (CS) : FM wave consists of an infinite
The total variation in frequency number of side frequency
from the lowest to the highest is components on each side of the
carrier frequency 𝑓𝐶 , 𝑓𝐶 ± 𝑓𝑚 , 𝑓𝐶 ±
2𝑓𝑚 , 𝑓𝑐 ± 3𝑓𝑚 , & so on.

Amplitude Module Frequency Modulation

1 The amplitude of AM signal varies 1 The amplitude of FM wave is constant,
depending on modulation index. whatever be the modulation index.
2 Band with * is very small (One of the 2 It require much wider channel (Band width) [7
biggest advantage) to 15 times] as compared to AM.
3 Relatively simple and cheap. 3 Transmitters are complex and hence
expensive.
4 Area of reception is Large. 4 Area of reception is small since it is limited to
line of sight. (This limits the FM mobile
communication over a wide area)
5 It is difficult to eliminate effect of 5 Noise can be easily minimized amplitude
noise. variation can be eliminated by using limiter.
6 Most of the power which contained in 6 Power contained in the FM wave is useful.
carrier is not useful. Therefore carrier Hence full transmitted power is useful.
power transmitted is a waste.
7 The average power in modulated wave 7 The average power is the same as the carrier
is greater than carrier power. wave.
8 Maximum m = 1, otherwise over 8 No restriction is placed on modulation index
modulation (m > 1) would result in (m).
distortion.
9 It is not possible to operate without 9 It is possible to operate several independent
interference. transmitter on same frequency.

MODEM FAX (Facsimile Telegraphy)

The name modem is a contraction of the FAX is abbreviation for facsimile which
terms Modulator and Demodulator. means exact reproduction. The
Modem is a device which can modulate as electronic reproduction of a document at
well as demodulate the signal. a distance place is called Fax.
 Chapter 26
IMPORTANT TABLES

26(a) SOME
FUNDAMENTAL
CONSTANTS

26 (b)
CONVERSIONS
☻ A → ampere
☻ Å → angstrom
☻ amu → atomic mass unit 26 (c)
☻ atm → atmosphere Notations for
☻ Btu → British thermal unit
☻ C → coulomb
Units of
☻ ℃ → degree Celsius Measurement
☻ cal → calorie
☻ deg → degree (angle)
☻ eV → electronvolt
☻ F → Farad
☻ fm → femtometer
☻ ft → foot
☻ G → gauss
☻ g → gram
☻ H → henry
☻ h → hour
☻ hp → horse power
☻ Hz → hertz
☻ J → joule
☻ K → kelvin
☻ m → meter
☻ min → minute
☻ Mx → maxwell
☻ Oe → oersted
☻ Pa → pascal
☻ Ω → ohm
☻ rad → radian
☻ s → second
☻ S → siemens
☻ T → tesla
☻ V → volt
☻ W → watt
☻ Wb → weber
 Chapter 27
DICTIONARY OF
PHYSICS
An electronic device
A that indicates altitude above the
 Abbe number surface of earth.
Reciprocal of the dispersive power  Amalgam
of a substance. An alloy (a material consisting of
 Absorption Coefficient two or more elements e.g. brass is
Measure of rate of decrease in an alloy of 𝐶𝑢 and 𝑍𝑛. Steel is an
intensity of 𝑒𝑚 radiation when it is
passes through the given substance.
 Admittance alloy of iron & carbon) one of
Reciprocal of impedance. It refers whose constituents is mercury (Hg)
to the measure of the ability of a  Ammeter
circuit to conduct an alternating An instrument used to measure
current. electric current.
 Aclinic line  Ampere-hour
The line joining the places of zero A practical unit of electric charge
dip. This line is also known as equal to the charge flowing in one
magnetic equator and goes nearly our through a conductor passing one
side by side with geographical ampere. It is equal to 3600
equator. coulombs.
 Acoustics  Ampere-rule
Branch of physics that is concerned A rule that relates the direction of
with the study of sound & sound the electric current passing through
waves. a conductor and the magnetic field
 Actinometer associated with it. The rule states
Instruments for measuring the that if the electric current is moving
intensity of 𝑒𝑚 radiation. away from an observer, the
 Agonic line direction of the lines of force of the
The line of zero declination. magnetic field surrounding the
 Albedo conductor is clockwise and that if
Ratio of the amount of light the electric current is moving
reflected from a surface to the towards an observer, the direction
amount of incident light. of the lines of force is counter
 Alfa-decay clockwise.
A form of radioactive decay where  Amorphous
a radioactive nuclei spontaneously A solid that is not crystalline i.e. one
emits α-particles (nuclei of 2He4) that has no long range order in its
 Alternator lattice. Example : Glass.
Any device that is used to generate  Amplifier
an alternating current. A device that increases the strength
 Altimeter of and electrical signal by drawing
energy from a separate dc source to
that of the signal.
 Anisotropic  Atomiser
Substance showing different A device that is used for reducing
physical properties in different liquid to a fine spray.
directions.  Aurora
 Aperture An intermittent electrical discharge
The size of the opening that admit that takes place in rarefied upper
light in an optical instrument. The atmosphere. Charge particles in the
effective diameter of mirror and solar wind (or cosmic – rays)
lens. becomes trapped in the earth’s
 Aphelion magnetic field and move in helical
The farthest point in the orbit of paths along the lines of force
planet, comet and artificial satellite between the two magnetic poles.
around the sun. The earth is at The intensity of the aurora is
aphelion on about July 3. greatest in polar regions although it
 Apogee is seen in temperate zones.
Maximum distance of a satellite  Autotransformer
from the earth during its orbit A transformer having a single
around the earth. winding instead of two or more
 Asteroids or minor planets independent windings.
Small bodies that revolve around  Avogadro constant
the sun. Symbol NA. The number of atoms
 Astrology or molecules in one mole of
Branch of science that is concerned substance. It has the value
with the study of influence of 6.0221367 (36) × 1023. Formerly it
heavenly bodies on human affairs. was called Avogadro’s number.
 Astronomical unit AU  Avogadro’s law
A unit distance in astrology in the Equal volumes of all gases contain
solar system. It is equal to the mean equal numbers of molecules at the
distance of sun from earth same pressure and temperature. The
(~1.496 × 1011 𝑚) law, often called Avogadro’s
 Astronomy hypothesis, is true only for ideal
The study of the universe beyond gases. It was first proposed in 1811
the earth’s atmosphere. by Amadeo Avogadro.
 Atomic clock
A highly accurate clock. The
resonance frequency of atoms or
B
molecules of certain substances
such as cesium regulate it.  Ballistic galvanometer:
 Atomic mass unit (a. m. u.) A device used to measure the total
A unit of mass used to express amount of charge that passes
“relative atomic masses. It is 1/12 of through a circuit due to a
the mass of ans atom of the isotope momentary current.
carbon-12 and is equal to 1.66033 ×  Band spectrum
1027 kg.
 In such a spectrum there appears a A transistor that uses two type of
number of bands of emitted or charge carries (electrons & holes)
absorbed radiations. This type of for its operation.
spectrum are characteristic of  Black body
molecules. A perfectly black body is one that
 Band width absorbs completely all the
It refers to the width of the range of radiations falling on it. Its
frequencies. absorptance and emissivity are both
 Barn equal to 1.
A unit of area & generally used for  Black hole (collapsar)
measuring nuclear cross section (1 An astronomical body having so
barn = 10-28 m2) high gravitational field in which
 Barometer neither matter particles nor photons
A device used to measure can escape (they captured
atmospheric pressure. permanently form the outside).
 Becquerel  Bolometer
SI unit of radio- activity (1Bq = 1 A device used to measure amount of
disintegration / sec. = radiation by means of changes in the
1 resistance of an electric conductor
curie)
3.7×1010
caused due to changes in its
 Bel
temperature.
Ten decibels (10 dB)
 Boson
β- rays
An elementary particle with integral
A stream of β- particles (fast
spin. Ex : photon.
moving electrons)
 Bragg’s law
 Betatron
When an X – ray beam of
A device used to accelerate the
wavelength 𝜆 is incident on a
electrons.
crystal of interplaner spacing d at
 Bevatron
grazing angle [ complement of the
An accelerator used to accelerate
angle of incident] then the direction
protons and other particles to very
of diffraction maxima are given by
high energies.
2d sin𝜃 = nλ, which is known as
 Binary star
Bragg’s law.
A system of two stars which revolve
 Brewster’s law
around a common centre of gravity.
The extent of the polarization of
 Binding energy
light reflected from a transparent
The energy required to separate the
surface is a maximum when the
nucleons (protons & neutrons) of a
reflected ray is at right angles to the
nucleus from each other. The
refracted ray. The angle of
binding energy per nucleon is least
incidence (and reflection) at which
for very light and very heavy nuclei
this maximum polarization occurs is
and nearly constant (~8
called the Brewster angle or
MeV/nucleon) for medium nuclei.
polarizing angle.
 Bipolar transistor
 An instrument used for measuring
quantity of heat. It consists of an
open cylindrical container of copper
or some other substance of known
heat capacity.
 Calorimetry
 British Thermal Unit (BTU) It is the study of the measurement of
Quantity of heat required to raise quantities of heat.
the temperature of 1 pound of water  Canal rays, Anode rays, Positive
through 1°C. rays:
 Bulk modulus (K) Positively charged rays produced
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜟𝑷 during the discharge of electricity in
𝐾 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = (𝜟𝑽/𝑽) =
gases.
𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚  Candela
It is a S.I. unit of luminous intensity.
It is equal to 1/60 of the luminous
C intensity of a square centimeter of a
black body heated to the
 Calibration temperature of solidification of
It is the process of determining the platinum (1773.5°C) under a
absolute values corresponding to pressure of 101325 N/m2 in the
the graduations on an arbitrary or perpendicular direction.
inaccurate scale on an instrument.  Cannon
 Calipers A mounted gun for firing heavy
An instrument used for measuring projectiles.
internal and external diameters. It is  Capacitor
a graduated rule with one fixed and It is a device which is used for
one sliding jaw. storing electric charge. It consists of
 Caloric theory two metal plates separated by an
It regards heat as a weightless fluid. insulator. It is also known as
It has now been abandoned. condenser.
 Calorie  Capacitive reactance
It is equal to the amount of heat It is the opposition offered by a
required to raise the temperature of capacitance to the flow of
1 gram of water through 1°C. 1 cal 1
alternating current. 𝑋𝑐 = 𝛱𝑓𝑐
= 4.2 Joules.
 Calorific value Where 𝑋𝑐 = capacitive reactance
The quantity of heat liberated on in ohms
complete combustion of unit mass f = frequency in cycles/sec
of a fuel. The determination is done C= capacitance in farads
in a bomb calorimeter and the value  Capillary action or Capillarity
is generally expressed in J kg-1. The phenomenon of rise or fall of a
 Calorimeter liquid in a capillary tube when it is
dipped in the liquid. Due to this the
 portion of the surface of the liquid  The efficiency of a
coming in contact with a solid is reversible heat engine
elevate or depressed. (cannot engine) working
 Carat between any two
 A measure of fineness temperatures is greater than
(purity) of gold. Pure gold the efficiency of any heat
is described as 24-carat engine working between
gold. 14- carat gold the same two temperatures.
contains 14 parts in 24 of  The efficiency of a
gold, the remainder usually reversible heat engine
being copper. depends only on the
 A unit of mass equal to temperature of the source
0.200 gram, used to and the sink and is
measure the masses of independent of the working
diamonds and other substance.
gemstones.  Cathode
 Capillary tube The electrode that emits electrons or
A tube having a very small internal gives off negative ions and toward
diameter. which positive ions move or collect
 Carbon dating in a voltaic cell, electron or X-ray
It is a method used to determine the tube etc.
age of materials that contain matter  Cathode ray
of living organism. It consists of The rays emitted in a discharge tube
determining the ratio of 126C to when the pressure falls to about 10-
14 4
6C. mm of mercury.
 Carbonize  Cathode-ray oscilloscope or CRO
Means to enrich with carbon. An instrument based on the
 Carnot cycle cathode-ray tube that provides a
It is reversible cycle and consists of visual image of electrical signals.
two isothermal ( 𝐴 → 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 →  Cathode ray tube
𝐷) & two adiabatic (𝐵 → 𝐶, 𝐷 → A vacuum tube generating a focused
𝐴) changes. beam of electrons that can be
deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
 Cation
A positively charged ion i.e. Na+,
Ba2+ etc.
 Cauchy dispersion formula
A formula for the dispersion of light
of the form:
𝐵 𝐶
𝑛 = 𝐴 + (𝜆2 ) + (𝜆4 ), where n is
the refractive index, 𝜆 the
 Carnot theorem wavelength, and A, B and C are
 constants. Sometimes only the first reduce the high frequency
two terms are necessary. components of an electrical signal.
 Centre of buoyancy  Chromatic aberration
It is the point through which the It is a defect of the image formed by
resultant of the buoyancy forces on a lens ( but not a mirror), in which
a submerged body act, it coincides different colours to focus at
with the centre of gravity of the different points. it can be corrected
displaced fluid. by using a suitable combination of
 Centre of gravity lenses.
It is the point through which the  Circuit breaker
weight of the body acts. It is the It is a device that is used for
point where the whole of the weight interrupting an electric circuit when
of the body may be supposed to be the current becomes excessive.
concentrated.  Classical physics
 Centre of mass Refers to the physics that has been
For any system it is the point at developed before the introduction
which the whole of the mass of the of quantum theory.
body (or system) may be considered  Classical mechanics
to be acting for determining the The branch of mechanic based on
effect of some external force. Newton's law of motion. It is
 Cerenkov radiation applicable to those systems which
Electromagnetic radiation, usually are so large that in their case
bluish light, emitted by a beam of Planck's constant can be neglected.
high energy charged particles  Closed end organ pipe
passing through a transparent In these case one end of the pipe is
medium at a speed greater than the closed. In them first harmonic is
speed of light in that medium. It was given by 𝜆/4l
discovered in 1934 by the Russian  Coefficient of expansion
physicist Pavel Cerenkov (1904). It is the increase in unit length, area
The effect is similar to that of a or volume per degree rise in
sonic boom when an object moves temperature.
faster than the speed of sound; in 𝒇
 Coefficient of friction µ= 𝑹
this case the radiation is a shock
Where f= Limiting friction. R=
wave shut up in the electromagnetic
normal reaction
field. Cerenkov radiation is used in
Also µ = tan θ ; where θ = angle of
the Cerenkov counter.
friction
 Chip
 Coefficient of restitution
A very small semi- conductor
The ratio of relative velocity of two
having a component (transistor,
bodies after direct impact to that
resistor, etc.) or an integrated
before impact.
circuit.
 Coefficient of mutual inductance
 Choke
 It is numerically equal to
It is coil of high inductance and low
the magnetic flux linked
resistance which is used to block or
 with one circuit when unit the induced e.m.f. in
current flows through it. establishing wnit current in
The effective flux Ns linked the coil.
with secondary circuit is  Coercive force
given by Ns = Mi It is the magnetic intensity required
 It is numerically equal to to reduce the magnetic induction in
the e.m.f. induced in one a previously magnetized material to
circuit when the rate of zero.
change of current in the  Complementary colours
other is unity. The e.m.f. A pair of colours which, when
induced in a secondary coil, combined give the effect of white
when the rate of change of light. A large number of such pairs
current with time in are possible.
primary coil is  Compound microscope
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
A microscope consisting of an
is given by, es = 𝑀 𝑑𝑡 objective lens with a short focal
𝑑𝑡
 Coefficient of thermal length an eyepiece of a longer focal
conductivity (k) length, mounted in the same tube.
It is the amount of heat flowing in  Compound pendulum
one second across the 1m2 area, of a In such a pendulum the moment of
1 meter rod, maintained at a the restoring force is τ = mgd sinθ
temperature difference of 1°C. If θ ( in radians) is sufficiently
 Coefficient of viscosity small, then τ = - mgd θ. Time period
It is the tangential force required to of such a pendulum is 𝑇 =
maintain a unit velocity gradient 𝐼 𝑙
2𝜋√𝑀𝑔𝑑 = 2𝜋√𝑔
between two layers of unit area. Its
units are Nsm-2 or poiseulle or  Compton effect
decapoise. The phenomenon according to
 Coefficient of self – induction which the wave length of radiation
 It is numerically equal to scattered by a particle is greater than
the magnetic flux linked that of the original radiation is
with the coil when the unit called Compton effect.
current flows through it.  Condensation
The effective flux N is A change of state from vapour to
given by N=Li where I = liquid. In this state the vapour
current flowing through the pressure becomes equal to the
circuit. saturated vapour pressure (SVP) of
 It is numerically equal to liquid state.
e.m.f. induced in the circuit  Conductance
when the rate of change of It is the reciprocal of resistance. It is
current is unity. the ability of a conductor of transmit
 It is numerically equal to current. Its unit is mho, ohm-1 or
twice the work done against siemens.
 Conduction
 A method of heat transfer. In this A discharge, generally luminous, at
mode of heat transfer the particles the surface of a conductor or
do not move. between two conductors of the same
 Conservation of angular transmission line.
momentum  Corpuscular theory of light
In the absence of any external It assumes that light travels as
torque the total angular momentum particles or corpuscles. It is useful to
of a system remains uncharged. explain reflection, refraction etc. It
 Conservation of charge can not explain diffraction,
For an isolated system the total polarization etc.
charge remains constant.  Cosmic rays
 Conservation of linear These are high energy radiations.
momentum These consists of protons and some
In the absence of any external force α- particles, electrons and other
the total linear momentum of the atomic nuclei and 𝛾- rays reaching
system remains constant. the earth from space.
 Conservation of mass and energy  Cosmology
The total energy of a closed system, The branch of astronomy that days
viz., rest mass energy + kinetic with the evolution, general
energy + potential energy remains structure, and nature of the Universe
constant. This principal treats the as a whole.
rest mass as energy. The rest mass  Critical mass
energy of a particle having rest mass It is the minimum mass of fissile
m0 is m0 c2. material that will sustain a chain
 Conservative field reaction.
It is that vector field for which the  Critical pressure
line integral depends on the end It is the saturated vapour pressure of
points of the path only and is a liquid at its critical temperature.
independent of the path. A  Critical temperature
conservative field can always be It is the temperature above which a
expressed as the gradient of a scalar gas can not be liquefied by
field. increasing the pressure alone.
 Constantan  Critical velocity
An alloy containing about 50% The velocity of fluid flow at which
copper and 50% nickel having a the motion changes from laminar to
comparatively high resistance and turbulent flow.
low temperature coefficient of  Critical volume
resistance. The volume of a certain mass of
 Convection substance measured at critical
A mode of heat transfer. In this pressure and temperature.
mode the movement of particles  Cryogenics
occur. The study of the production and
 Corona discharge effects of very low temperatures. A
 cryogen is a refrigerant used for The wavelength (𝜆) is given by 𝜆 =
obtaining very low temperatures. h/mv, where h is the Planck
 Cryometer constant, m is the mass of the
A thermometer designed to measure particle, and v its velocity. The de
low temperatures. Broglie wave was first suggested by
 Curie the French physicist Louis de
A unit to measure the activity of a Broglie (1892) in 1924 on the
radioactive substance (see radio ground that electromagnetic waves
activity) It is the quantity of radon can be treated as particles and one
in radioactive equilibrium with 1 g could therefore expect particles to
of radium. Also defined as that behave in some circumstances like
quantity of a radioactive isotope waves. The subsequent observation
which decays at the rate of 3.7×1010 of electron diffraction substantiated
disintegrations per second. Named this argument and the de Broglie
after Madame Curie (1867 – 1984). wave become the basis of wave
 Curie’s law mechanics.
The value of (𝑥) susceptibility of a  Debye length
paramagnetic substance is inversely It is the maximum distance at which
proportional to its absolute coulombs fields of charged particles
1 in a plasma may be expected to
temperature 𝑥 ∝ 𝑇
interact.
 Cyclotron
 Deca
An accelerator in which particles
Symbol: The prefix meaning 10,
move in a spiral path under the
e.g. 1 decameter=10meters.
influence of an alternating voltage
 Deci
and a magnetic field.
A prefix measuring 10-1
 Decibel dB
D A unit for expressing the intensity
of a sound wave. It is measured on
a logarithmic scale.
 Daughter nucleus  Declination
Refers to the nucleus that results The horizontal angle between the
from the radioactive decay of directions of true north and
another nucleus known as parent magnetic north.
nucleus.  Delta-ray
 Dead beat galvanometer A low energy electron emitted by a
A galvanometer which is damped so substance after bombardment by
that its oscillations die away very high energy particles (e.g. 𝛼 -
quickly. In such galvanometer its particles)
resistance is less than its critical  Degrees of freedom
damping resistance. The number of independent co-
 De Broglie wavelength ordinates needed to define the state
The wavelength of the wave of a system.
associated with a moving particle.  Demagnetization
 To remove the ferromagnetic
properties of a body. It can be done 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
=
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚
by disordering the domain structure. ∈
 Deuteron =∈1 = 𝐾
∈0
Nucleus of deuterium atom. It  Dielectric strength
consists of one proton and one Refers to the maximum electric
neutron. field that a dielectric is capable of
 Dew withstanding without a break down.
Water droplets formed due to  Diffraction
condensation of water vapour in the It refers to the bending of light
air when the temperature of air round an obstacle.
drops so that the quantity of vapour  Diffraction grating
present at that temperature reaches A glass plate with a very large
saturation. number of closely spaced parallel
 Dew point lines (usually more than 5000 to the
It is the temperature to which air inch) scrapped across it. These are
must be cooled for dew to form. At used for diffracting light to produce
this temperature air becomes optical spectra.
saturated with water vapours  Diffusion length
present in it. It is the average distance that is
 Dew point hygrometer travelled by minority carriers
It is an instrument used for between generation and
determination of relative humidity. recombination in a semiconductor.
 Diamagnetic substances  Dioptre
Refers to those substances that have It is a unit of measurement of the
a negative value of susceptibility. refractive power of a lens. It is equal
They are repelled when placed in a to the reciprocal of the focal length
magnetic field. of a lens expressed in meters.
 Diamagnetism  Dip, Inclination (ϕ)
Diamagnetic substances when The dip at a place is the angle which
placed in a magnetic field get feebly the earth’s field makes with earth’s
magnetised direction opposite to surface at a place
that of magnetizing field. This  Dip circle
property of diamagnetic substances It is an instrument that is used to
is known as diamagnetism. measure the angle of dip at a place.
 Dielectric It consists of a magnetic needle
Refers to an insulator, a non- mounted in such a way that it can
conducting substance. rotate in a vertical plane. The angle
 Dielectric constant (Relative is measured on a circular scale.
permittivity)  Dipole
Dielectric constant Refers to two equal and opposite
electric charges (or magnetic poles)
separated by a distance.
 Dipole moment
 It is equal to the product of pole Property by which metals are
strength and the length of magnetic capable of being, drawn in wires.
electric dipole.  Dulong and petit’s law
 Dispersion It states, “the product of atomic
The separation of white light into its weight and specific heat of a solid
constituent colours by refraction or element is approximately 6.4”.
other means is called dispersion of  Dynamo
light. An electric generator. It produces
direct current by converting
mechanical energy into electrical
energy. It consists of a strong
electromagnet between the poles of
which an armature is rotated,
consisting of a number of coils
suitably wound. It is based on the
principle of electromagnetic
induction.
 Dispersive power (𝝎)
Dispersive power of the material of E
the prism is given by
𝜇𝑏− 𝜇𝑟
𝜔= for blue & red rays.
𝜇−1
 Earthing
Where 𝜇𝑏 and 𝜇𝑟 are the refractive
Refers to connecting an electrical
indices of blue and red rays
conductor to earth which is assumed
respectively and 𝜇 is the refractive
to have zero electric potential.
index for yellow rays.
 Earth’s atmosphere
 Doping
The gas that surrounds the earth.
It refers to the process of adding
The composition of dry air at sea
some amount of impurities in semi-
level is : nitrogen 78.08%, oxygen
conductors to achieve a desired
20.95%, argon 0.93%, carbon
conductivity.
dioxide 0.03%, neon 0.0012%,
 Double refraction
helium 0.005%, krypton 0.0015,
When a beam of light is incident on
and xenon 0.00001%. In addition to
certain materials, it breaks it into
water vapour, air in some localities
two polarised beams with their
contains Sulphur compounds,
plane of polarization perpendicular
hydrogen peroxide, hydrocarbons,
to each other. The two beams have
and dust particles.
different velocities in the medium.
 Eclipse
This phenomenon is called double
To prevent light from a source
refraction.
reaching an object. It is refers to
 Dry ice
shadowing one heavenly body by
Solid carbon dioxide.
another. In solar eclipse shadow of
 Ductility
the moon falls on the earth when the
 sun, moon and earth are in line. In It is a type of microscope in which
lunar eclipse shadow of the earth an electron beam is used to study
falls on the moon, when the earth is very minute particles.
in between the sun and the moon.  Electo-magnet
 Efficiency A magnet formed by winding a coil
The ratio of the useful energy output of wire around a piece of soft iron.
to the total energy input in any It behaves as a magnet a long as the
energy transfer. It is often given as current passes through the coil.
percentage and has no units.  Electrometer
 Effusion An instrument that is used for
The flow of gas through a small determining the potential difference
aperture. between two charged bodies by
 Einstein’s equation measuring the electrostatic force
Refers to the equation, maximum between them.
𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = hv - 𝜑0 for the kinetic  Electroscope
energy of electrons which are A device consisting of two pieces of
emitted in photo electric effect, v gold leaf enclosed in a glass walled
the frequency of incident radiation chamber. It is used for detecting the
and 𝜑0 the work function of the presence of electric charge of for
photo material upon which the determining the sign of electric
radiation is incident. charge on a body.
 Einstein’s law  Electrostatic shield
Mathematically it can be expressed A conducting substance which
as E = mc2. protects a given apparatus against
 Electric motor electric fields, It consists of a
A device that converts electrical hollow conductor and completely
energy into mechanical energy. surrounds the apparatus to be
 Electrocardiograph (ECG) shielded.
It is a sensitive instrument that  Emissivity
records the voltage and current The ability of a surface to emit
waveforms associated with the radiant energy compared to that of a
action of the heart. The trace black body at the same temperature
obtained is called and with the same area.
electrocardiogram.  Emissive power
 Electroencephalograph (EEG) The total energy emitted from unit
A sensitive instrument that records area from the surface of a body per
the voltage waveforms associated second.
with the brain. The trace obtained is  Enthalpy (H)
called electroencephalogram. H = E = PV, H = U + PV
 Electrogen Where U = Internal energy of the
A molecule that emits electrons on system
being illuminated. P = pressure and V = volume
 Electron microscope  Entropy (S)
 A measure of the degree of disorder km of an explosion, falls within a
of a system. An increase in entropy few hours of the explosion.
is accompanied by a decrease in Tropospheric fall-out consists of
energy availability. When a system fine particles deposited all round the
undergoes a reversible change then earth in the approximate latitude of
𝛥𝑄 the explosion within about one
𝛥𝑆 = . The importance of entropy
𝑇
week. Stratospheric fall-out may
is that in any thermodynamic
fall anywhere on earth over a period
process that proceeds from one
of years.
equilibrium state to another, the
 Faraday’s law of electrolysis
entropy of system + environment
First Law W = Zit
either remains unchanged or
Where
increases.
W = Wt. of ions liberated from an
 Evaporation
electrolyte.
The change of state from liquid to
Z = Electrochemical equivalent
gas which can occur at any
(E.C.E.)
temperature upto the boiling point.
t = Time in seconds for which
If a liquid is left in an open
current is passed
container for long enough it will all
i = Current in amperes
evaporate.
 Faraday’s Law of
 Extrinsic semi-conductor
electromagnetic induction
A semi-conductor in which the
carrier concentration is dependent  Whenever the number of
upon extent of impurities. lines of fore linked (flux)
 Expansion of the universe with any closed circuit
The hypothesis, based on the changes and induced
evidence of the redshift, that the current flows through the
distance between the galaxies is circuit which lasts only so
continuously increasing. The long as the change lasts.
original theory, which was  The magnitude of induced
proposed in 1929 by Edwin Hubble e.m.f. produced in a coil is
(1889-1953), assumes that the directly proportional to the
galaxies are flying apart like rate of change of lines of
fragments from a bomb as a force threading the coil
𝑑𝜑
consequence of the big bang with 𝑒 ∝ ; where 𝜑 = flux
𝑑𝑡
which the universe originated. (or number of lines of force
threading the circuit)
 Fahrenheit scale of temperature
F On this scale the melting point of ice
is 32°F and the boiling point of
 Fall-out (or radioactive fall-out)
water is 212°F the distance between
Radioactive particles deposited
these two points is divided in 180
from the atmosphere either from a
equal parts, each part begin 1°F. It
nuclear explosion or from a nuclear
accident. Local, fall-out, within 250
 is related to centigrade scale as be no accumulation of
𝐶 𝐹−32 current at any point in the
=
100 180
circuit.
 Second law : It is also
K known as loop rule “In a
closed circuit, the algebraic
 K-capture
sum of the products of the
Refers to an absorption of electron
current and the resistances
from the innermost (K-shell) shell
of each part of the circuit is
of an atom into its nucleus.
equal to total emf in the
 Karat (US)
circuit. ‘∑ 𝑖𝑟 = ∑ 𝐸
It is a unit used to specify the purity
 Kirchoff’s law (Heat)
of gold. A pure gold is 24 Karat
For a given temperature and
gold.
wavelength the ratio of emissive
 Kepler’s law
power of a substance to its
 The planets move around
absorptive power is the same for all
the sun in elliptical orbits
substances and is equal to the
with the sun at one focus of
emissive power of a perfectly black
the ellipse
body at that temperature.
 The radius vector from the
 Kundt’s tube
planet to the sun sweeps out It is a glass tube whose one end is
equal areas in equal fitted with a light adjustable piston
intervals of time. and ads another and is closed by a
𝑇2
 The ratio of = constant, cap through which passes a metal
𝑎3
where T is the period of the rod clamped at its centre. A small
planet’s orbit around the sun quantity of lycopodium powder is
and a is the semi-major axes spread uniformly through out the
of the ellipse. tube. The free end of the rod is
 Kilo watt-hour (kWh) rubbed to and fro along its length.
It is a practical unit of work (or Stationary waves are produced in
energy ). It is equal to the energy the air column in the tube. By
supplied by one kilowatt of power measuring the wavelength it is
in one hour. possible to calculate the velocity of
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 joule. sound in air in terms of the Young’s
 Kinetic friction modulus, length and density of the
Refers to the friction that acts on a rod and the wave length of
body when it is moving over a stationary waves.
second body.
 Kirchhoff’s law (Electrostatics) L
 First Law: It is also known
as Junction rule. It states
 Lactometer
junction in a circuit is zero”.
It is an instrument that is used to
∑ 𝑖 = 0. Thus there could
find out the specific gravity of milk.
 Lambert’s law appears as right hand side and vice
The illuminance of a surface that is versa.
illuminated by a point source of  Latitude
light normally is proportional to 1/r2 Refers to the angular distance north
where r is the distance between the or south from the equator of a point
source and the surfance. If the on the earth’s surface, measured on
incident rays make an angle θ with the meridian of the point.
the normal to the ray, then the  Laws of dynamic friction
illuminance is proportional to cos θ.  Dynamic friction is
 Laminar flow proportional to the normal
Refers to flow of a fluid along a reaction. It is less than static
stream lined surface without any friction.
turbulence.  It does not depend on the
 Laminated iron velocity if the velocity is
A piece of iron consisting of thin neither too large nor too
sheets of iron. Such a piece of iron small.
is used for cores of transformers. It  Laws of limiting friction
helps to minimize losses due to  The force of limiting
eddy currents. friction is directly
 Laser proportional to normal
It stands for light amplification by reaction for the same two
stimulated emission of radiation. A surfaces in contact and it
highly powerful, coherent, takes place in a direction
monochromatic light source. Such which is opposite to the
light is of great use in medicine, direction of the force of the
telecommunications, industry and pull. Limiting friction is
holography. maximum static friction, it
 Latent heat is less than static friction.
Hidden heat. It is energy involved in F∝ R (when the body just
changes of state. In each case, the begins to move F = 𝜇𝑅 )
temperature stays constant while the Where 𝜇 is coefficient of
change of state takes place. A friction.
similar situation exists in the  Limiting friction is
changes from liquid to gas and gas independent of the size and
to liquid. The quantity of energy shape of the bodies in
transformed from and to the contact as long as the
particles during changes of state normal reaction remains the
depends on the nature of the same.
substance and its state.  Law of gravitation
 Lateral inversion According to it, all bodies and
Refers to the type of inversion particles in universe exert
produced in the image formed by a gravitational force on one another.
plane mirror. The left hand side The force of gravitation between
 any two bodies is directly molecules, which are arranged in
proportional to the product of their distinct layers, In cholesteric
masses and inversely proportional crystals the axes of the molecules
to the distance between them. are parallel to the plane of the
 Law of intermediate temperature layers; in smetic crystals they are
The e.m.f. of a thermocouple perpendicular.
between any two temperatures is  Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD)
equal to the sum of the e.m.f. of any A digital display unit used in
number of successive steps in which watches, calculators, etc. It provides
the given range of temp. is divided. a source of clearly displayed digits
𝑡 for a very low power consumption.
Thus if 𝐸𝑡1𝑛 is the thermos
e.m.f. between two temp. In the display unit a thin film of
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 liquid crystal is sandwiched
t1 & tn, 𝐸𝑡1𝑛 = 𝐸𝑡12 + 𝐸𝑡23 + 𝐸𝑡34 +
𝑡
between two transparent electrodes
𝑛
𝐸𝑡𝑛−1 (glass with a thin metal or oxide
Were the given temp. range is coating). In the commonly used
divide between the steps t1, t2, field—effect display, twisted
t3……..tn. nematic crystals are used. The
 Light Emitting Diode (LED) nematic Equid crystal cell is placed
This is a p-n junction diode and is between two crossed polarizers.
usually made from gallium arsenide Polarized light entering the cell
or phosphide. Energy is released follows the twist of the nematic
with in the LED and this is given off liquid crystal. is rotated through
as light. The junction is made near 90°. and can therefore pass through
to the surface so that the emitting the second polarizer. When an
light can be seen. No light is emitted electric field is applied, the
with a reverse bias. LED are molecular alignment in the liquid
generally coloured red, yellow or crystal is altered the polarization of
green. They are widely used in a the entering light is unchanged and
variety of electronic devices. no light is therefore transmitted. In
 Light year these circumstances, a minor placed
It is a unit used to measure the behind the second polarizer will
distance between the earth and stars. cause the display to appear black.
1 light year = 365 × 86400 × 3 × One of the electrodes, shaped in the
108 𝑚 = 9.46 × 1015 𝑚. form of a digit, will then provide a
 Liquid Crystal black digit when the voltage is
A substance that flows like a liquid applied.
but has some order in its  Lissajou’s figures
arrangement of molecules. Nematic The loci of the resultant
crystals have long molecules all displacement of a point subject to
aligned in the same direction, but two or more simple harmonic
otherwise randomly arranged. motions simultaneously. When the
Cholesteric and smectic liquid, two periodic motions are of the
crystals also have aligned same frequency and are at right
 angles to each other. The resulting A line perpendicular to magnetic
figure varies from a straight line to axis and passing through the middle
an ellipse depending on the phase point of the magnet is called
difference between the two motion. equatorial line or magnetic equator.
 Longitude  Magnetic meridian
It is the angular distance east or west It is that vertical plane which passes
on earth’s surface. It is measured by through the magnetic axis of a
the angle contained between the freely suspended magnet.
meridian of a particular place and  Magnetic storm
some prime meridian. A temporary disturbance of the
 Lumen earth’s magnetic field induced by
A unit of luminous flux. One lumen radiation and streams of charged
is the luminous flux emitted in a unit particles from the sun.
solid angle by a point source of one  Magnetization (M)
– candle intensity. The magnetic moment per unit
 Lux volume of a magnetised substance.
It is S.I. unit of illuminance. 𝐵
𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) 𝑜𝑟 𝑀 = − 𝐻
1 lux = 1 lumen/square meter 𝜇0
Where H is the magnetic field
strength, B is the magnetic flux and
M 𝜇0 is constant.
 Malus law
 Mach number It states that the instensity of light
It is number indicated the radio of transmitted through an analyser is
the speed of an object to the speed proportional to cos2θ where θ is the
of sound in the medium through angle between the transmission
which the object is moving. planes of the polarizer and the
 Magic numbers analyser
Atomic nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50,  Manganin
82, 126 neutrons or protons are A copper alloy containing 13-18%
quite stable. These number are of manganese and 1-4% of nickel. It
known as magic numbers. has a high electrical resistance,
 Magnetic axis which is relatively insensitive to
It is the line joining the two poles of temperature changes. It is therefore
a magnet inside its body. suitable for use as a resistance wire.
 Magnetic elements  Maser
These are the magnetic declination, It is a device that is used for
magnetic dip and the horizontal amplifying electrical impulses by
component of Earth’s magnetic stimulated emission of radiation.
field which completely define the  Mass defect (∆𝑴)
Earth’s magnetic field at any point It is the difference between the
on the Earth’s surface. actual nuclear mass and the sum of
 Magnetic equator the masses of its constituents
nucleons.
 Mass-Energy equation  Melde’s experiment
E = mc2 It is an experiment carried out for
 Maxwell Mx. verification of transverse vibration
It is unit of magnetic flux on C.G.S. of strings.
system.  Melting point
1 Mx=10-8 Weber The fixed temperature at which a
One Maxwell is equal to magnetic solid changes into the liquid state.
flux through one square centimeter The melting point of ice is 0°C.
normal to a magnetic field of one Melting point of a solid depends
gauss. upon pressure. It is also called
 Maxwell’s formula fusion temperature of the liquid.
A formula that connect the relative  Michelson-Morley experiment
permittivity 𝜀𝑟 = 𝑛2 . An experiment conducted by
 Maver’s relationship: Michelson-Morley in 1881 to show
CP – CV = R that the velocity of light is not
Where influenced by motion of medium
CP = Molar specific heat of gas at through which it passes.
constant pressure  Micro
CV = Molar specific heat of gas at A prefix denoting 10-6
constant volume  Micron(𝝁)
R = Gas constant = 8.314 Jk-1 moll- A unit of length 1 𝜇 = 10−6 𝑚.
1
 Micrometer
 Mechanical advantage Refers to any device used for
It is the radio of output force to the measuring minute distances, angles
input force applied to any etc.
mechanism.  Microphone
𝑊 𝐴𝐹 An instrument that can transform
𝑃 × 𝐴𝐹 = 𝑊 × 𝐵𝐹 =
𝑃 𝐵𝐹 the air pressure waves of sound into
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚 electrical signals vice-versa. It is
=
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑚 used for recording or transmitted
 Meissner effect sound.
The falling off of the magnetic flux  Mirage
within a superconducting metal An optical phenomenon that occurs
when it is cooled to a temperature as a result of the bending of light
below the critical temperature in a rays through layers of air having
magnetic field. It was discovered by very large temperature gradients.
Walther Meissner in 1933 when he An inferior mirage occurs when the
observed that the earth’s magnetic ground surface is strongly heated
field was expelled from the interior and the air near the ground is much
of tin crystals below 3.72K, warmer that the air above. Light
indicating that as rays from the sky are strongly
“superconductivity appeared the refracted upwards near the surface
material become perfectly giving the appearance of a pool of
diamagnetic”. water. A superior mirage occurs if
 the air close to the ground surface is secondary coil is opposite to battery
much colder than the air above. current in primary coil (Lenz’s law)
Light is bent downwards from the  Myopia
object towards the viewer so that it A defect of vision. Any one
appears from the object towards the suffering with this defect fails to see
viewer so that it appears to be distant objects clearly. The image of
elevated or floating in the air. distance is formed in front of retina
 Mirror equation and not on retina. It can be corrected
1 1 1 by use of concave lens.
=𝑢+𝑣
𝑓
u = distance of object
v = distance of image N
f = focal length of mirror  Natural gas
 M.K.S. system It is mixture of hydrocarbons and is
System of units having the found in deposite under the earth’s
fundamental units meter, kilogram surface. It contains upto 90%
and second for the length, mass and Methane. It is used as a fuel both in
time respectively. industry and home.
 Mole  Nautical mile
SI unit of quantity of a substance. It is a unit of distance used for
Amount of a substance that contains navigation. 1 nautical mile =
as many atoms (molecules, ions 6082.66 feet.
etc.) as there are atoms in 0.012kg.  Negative crystal
of carbon -12. Refers to that crystal in which the
 Monochromatic velocity of extra ordinary ray is
Having only one colour. more than the velocity of ordinary
 Moseley’s law ray e.g. calcite.
According to it the frequencies in  Negative resistance
the X-ray spectrum of elements, It is characteristic of certain
corresponding to similar transitions electronic devices in which the
are proportional to the square of the current increases with decrease in
atomic number of elements. voltage.
 Multimeter  Neel temperature
An instrument that can be used for The temperature upto which the
measuring various electrical susceptibility of antiferromagnetic
quantities such as resistance, substances increase with increase in
voltage etc. temperature and above which the
 Mutual inductance substance become paramagnetic.
It refers to the phenomenon by  Nernst heat theorem
which a current is induced in a coil It is also called the third law of
circuit when current in a thermodynamics. For a chemical
neighbouring coil circuit is change occurring between pure
changed. Direction of current in the crystalline solids at absolute zero,
there is no change in entropy.
 Neutrino  IInd Law: The rate of
It is an elementary particle having change of momentum of a
rest-mass zero and is electrically body is directly
neutral. It has a spin of 1/2. proportional to the implied
 Neutron bomb force & takes place in the
It is a nuclear bomb. It releases a direction of the force 𝐹 =
shower of life destroying neutrons 𝑑𝑝
= 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑡
but has practically little blast and
 Third law: To every action
contamination.
there is equal and opposite
 Newton
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
reaction.𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
12 = −𝐹21
It is S.I. unit of force. It is equal to
the force which produces an  Newton’s ring
acceleration of 1 m/s2 in a mass of 1 Refers to alternately dark and bright
kg. fringes (circular) that can be
 Newton’s formula for velocity of observed around the point of contact
sound: of a convex lens and a plane
𝐸
reflecting surface. These are
𝑢 = √𝑝 where u = velocity of sound produced due to interference of light
E = Elasticity of medium, p = waves reflected at the upper and
density of medium lower surfaces of the air film
 Newton’s law of cooling separating the lens and the plane
According to it, the rate of loss of surface.
heat from a hot body is directly  Nichrome
proportional to the excess of An alloy of nickel, chromium and
temperature over that of its iron, It has high melting point and
surroundings, provided the excess large resistivity. It is used for
of temperature is not very large. electric resistors and heating
 Newton’s law of gravitation 𝒏 element.
Every body in this universe attracts  Nicol prism
ever other body with a force which A prism made of calcite. It is used
is directly proportional to the for polarizing light and analyzing
product of their masses and plane polarized light.
inversely proportional to the square  Normal temperature and
of the distance between them. Pressure (N.T.P.)
𝑚 𝑚 These are 273 K and 760 mm of
Mathematically 𝐹 ∝ 𝑟1 2 2 ; 𝐹 =
𝑚1 𝑚2
mercury respectively.
𝐺  Nuclear fission
𝑟2
 Newton’s law of motion A nuclear reaction in which and
 Ist Law: A body continues atomic nucleus breaks up into two
to remain in its state of rest nearly equal fragments and
or of uniform motion in the evolution of a large amount of
same direction in a straight energy.
line unless acted upon by  Nuclear fusion
some external force.
 A nuclear reaction in which two A = Mass no. or = number of
light nuclei combine to form a protons + no. of neutrons
heavier nuclei and evolution of a MP = Mass of proton
large amount of energy. Mn = Mass of neutron
 Nuclear force ∆m = Mass defect
It refers to the strong attractive force  Nucleons
that keeps (bind) a large number of Refers to protons and neutrons
nucleons bound together in a very which are present in the nucleus.
small space. It is a short range They are collectively called
attractive force and is charge nucleons.
independent. Its range is a few
fermi. (1 fermi = 10-15m)
O
 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
(NMR)  Octave
The absorption of electromagnetic The interval between two musical
radiation at a suitable precise notes whose frequencies are in the
frequency bi a nucleus with a ratio of 2: 1.
nonzero magnetic moment in an  Octet
external magnetic field. The Group of eight electrons that
phenomenon occurs if the nucleus constitute the outer electron shell in
has nonzero " spin, in which case it case of an inert gas (except helium)
behaves as a small magnet, In an or any other atom/ion.
external magnetic field, the  Odd-Odd nucleus
nucleus's magnetic moment vector A nucleus which contains the odd
precesses about the field direction number of protons and odd number
but only certain orientations are of neutrons.
allowed by Quantum rules. Thus for  Oersted
hydrogen (spin off ½ ) there are two A C.G.S. Unit for magnetic field
possible states in the presence of strength.
103
field, each with a slightly different 1 Oersted = A/m.
4𝜋
energy. Nuclear magnetic  Ohm’s law
resonance is the absorption of It states, “current flowing through a
radiation at a photon energy equal to conductor is directly proportional to
the difference between these levels the potential difference across its
causing a transition from a lower to ends. If temperature and other
a higher energy state. physical conditions remain
 Nuclear mass unchanged”.
It is equal to the sum of masses of  Opacity
protons and neutrons minus the It is the reciprocal of the
mass defect. transmittance of a substance. It is a
Mass of nucleus = Z MP + (A – Z) measure of extent to which a
Mn – 𝜟m. substance is opaque.
Z = Atomic number = number of  Opaque
protons
 A substance that is not transparent
or which does not allow light to pass
P
through it.
 Optical activity  Packing fraction
It is the property of certain The algebraic difference between
substance to rotate the plane the relative atomic mass of an
polarized light when it passes isotope and its mass number divided
through their solution. The by the mass number.
substance are classified a  Pair production
dextrorotatory or leavo rotatory It refers to the simultaneous
depending on whether they rotate it production of an electron and its
towards right (dextro) or left anti-particle (positron) from a
(leavo). the rotation produced gamma ray photon. The minimum
depends upon the length of the energy that such a photon must have
medium and concentration of the in 1.02 MeV.
solution. Also depends on the  Paramagnetic
wavelength of light used. Refers to the magnetic nature of
 Optical pyrometer substances. Paramagnetic
A pyrometer where in the luminous substances are those substances in
radiation from the hot body is which the magnetic moments of the
compared with the form a known atoms have random directions until
source. The instrument measures placed in a magnetic field. When
the temperature of a luminous placed in a magnetic field they
source without thermal contact. possess magnetization in direct
 Optimum proportion to the magnetic field and
Refers to most favourable are weakly magnetised. If placed in
conditions for obtaining a given a non-uniform magnetic field, they
result. move from weaker parts to stronger
 Oscillation magnetometer parts of the field.
It is an instrument where in a freely  Paraxial rays
suspended magnet is made to Refers to those incident rays which
vibrate in a magnetic field (of earth are parallel and close to the axis of
). The time period of vibration of a lens.
this instrument is given by 𝑇 =  Parent nucleus
Any nucleus that undergoes
𝐼
2𝜋√𝑀𝐵 radioactive decay to form another
𝐻

 Overtones nucleus. The nucleus resulting by

Refers to the tones or frequencies radioactive decay of the parent
emitted by a system besides its nucleus resulting by radioactive
fundamental frequency are called decay of the parent nucleus is called
overtones. Generally the intensity daughter nucleus.
of overtones is lower than that of the  Parsec
fundamental. It is an astronomical unit of distance
1 parsec = 3.0857 × 1016m . or
 3.2616 light year. It corresponding An optical device used to view
to a parallel of one second of arc. object that are above the level of
The distance at which the mean direction sight or are in an
radius of the earth’s orbit subtends obstructed field of vision. In its very
an angle of one second of arc. simple form it is made up of two
 Pascal (Pa) mirrors inclined at 45° to the
The S.I > unit of pressure. direction being viewed.
1 Pa = 1 Newton/meter2  Permalloys
 Pascal’s law A group of alloys of high magnetic
In a confined fluid, externally permeability consisting of iron and
applied pressure is transmitted nickel (usually 40-80%) often with
uniformaly in all directions. small amount of other elements (e.g.
 Pauli’s exclusion principle 3-5% molybdenum, copper,
It states, “No two electrons in an chromium or tungsten. They are
atom can have all the quantum used in thin foils in electronic
number same.” transformers, for magnetic
 Peak value of inverse voltage shielding and in computer
(PIV) memories.
It is the maximum instantaneous  Permanent magnet
voltage that is applied to a device, A magnet that retains its magnetism
particularly rectifiers, in the reverse even after the removal of external
direction. magnetic field.
 Penumbra  Permeability (𝝁)
The partial shadow that surrounds When a magnetic substance is
the complete shadow of an opaque placed in a uniform magnetic field
body. (where lines of force are parallel)
 Perfect gas number of lines of force are seen to
An ideal gas that obeys the gas laws be crowded through the substance.
all temperatures and pressure. It The conducting power of the
consists of perfectly elastic substance for the line of force is
molecules. The volume of called permeability. It is taken as
molecules is zero and the unity for air B = 𝜇H. It is measured
intermolecular forces of attraction in henry/metre. The relative
between them is also zero. permeability of a substance is equal
 Perigee to the ratio of its absolute
It is the shortest distance of a permeability to the permeability of
satellite from the earth. free space. Thus 𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇/𝜇0 where
 Perihelion 𝜇0 , the permeability of free space
The point in the orbit of a plane, has the value 4 𝜋 × 10−7 henry
comet, or artificial satellite in solar meter.
orbit at which it is nearest to the sun.  Persistence of vision
The earth is at perihelion on about 2 The impression of an image of the
January. retina of the eye for some time after
 Periscope its withdrawal is known as
 persistence of vision. The the photon, 𝑐 is velocity of light and
impression on human eye lasts for h is Plank’s constant.
1/16th of a second. Successive  Photonuclear reaction
images at the rate of 16 per second A nuclear reaction that is initiated
of the same scene give the by a (gamma-ray) photon.
impression of continuity.  Photo sphere
 Photon It refers to highly luminous and
The phonon is a quantum of thermal visible portion of the sun. The
energy. It is given by ℎ𝑓, where h is approximate temperature existing in
the Planck constant and f the photosphere is estimated to be about
vibrational frequency. It refers to 6000 K.
lattice vibration of crystals.  Piezo electric effect
 Photodiode The production of a small e.m.f.
A Semiconductor diode used to across the opposite faces of non
detect the presence of light or to conducting crystals when they are
measure its intensity. It usually subjected to mechanica stress
consists of a p-n junction device in between their faces external
a container that focuses any light in pressure is known as piezoelectric
the environment close to the effect or piezoelectricity.
junction. The device is usually  Planck’s formula for black-body
biased in reverse so that in the dark radiation
the current is small; when it is The energy radiated per unit area at
illuminated the current is a given wavelength 𝜆, is given by
proportional to the amount of light 2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2 1
𝐸= ℎ𝑐
𝜆5
falling on it. (𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1)
 Photo-electric effect
Where c is the speed of light, h is
When light of suitable wavelength
Planck’s constant and T is the
falls on a metal plate, such as ultra
absolute temperature of the black
violet light on zinc, slow moving
body, k is the Boltzmann’s constant.
electrons are emitted from the metal
 Plane of polarization
surface. This phenomenon is known
It is a plane that is perpendicular to
as photoelectric effect and the
the plane of vibration and
electrons emitted are known as
containing the direction of
photoelectrons.
propagation of light. It is also the
 Photo fission
plane containing the direction of
A nuclear fission that is caused by a
propagation and the electric vector
gamma-ray photon.
of the electromagnetic light wave.
 Photon
 Plasma
Each quantum of light energy is
A highly ionized gas in which the
known as photon. The energy of
ℎ𝑐
number of free electrons is
photon is given by 𝐸 = , where 𝜆 approximately equal to the number
𝜆
is the wavelength associated with of positive ions. Sometimes
described as the forth state of
 matter, plasmas occurs in An elementary particle having a
interstellar space, in the mass equal to that of an electron and
atmospheres of stars (including the carrying a unit positive charge.
sun), in discharge tubes and in  Positronium
experimental thermonuclear An unstable assembly of a positon
reactors. and an electron.
 Poises  Potentiometer
It is unit of viscosity in C.G.S. It is a device that is used for
system. measuring electromotive force or
1 Poise = 0.1 Ns/m2. potential difference by comparing it
 Poiseuille’s formula with a known voltage.
It gives the volume per unit time  Pound
flowing through a cylindrical tube A unit of mass of FPS system 1
𝜋𝑅 4 𝛥𝑃 pound = 453.59 g
carrying a laminar flow. 𝑄 = 8𝜂𝑙
 Poundal
Where; Q = Volume per unit of time A unit of force of FPS system 1
R = Radius of pipe poundal = 0.138 N
l = length of the pipe  Power of lens
𝛥𝑃 = pressure difference across It is the ability of a lens to bend the
each end of pipe rays passing through it. Power of
𝜂 = Coefficient of viscosity convex lens is positive and tat of
 Poisson’s ratio concave lens is negative. Units of
The ratio of the lateral stain to the power of lens =Diopter.
longitudinal strain in a stretched 1
Power = 𝐹𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
rod. If the original diameter of the
rod is d and the contraction f the  Power reactor
diameter under stress is 𝛥𝑑 , the A nuclear reactor designed to
latral strain 𝛥𝑑/𝑑 = 𝑠𝑑 ; if the produce electrical power.
original length is l and the extension  Presbyopia
under stress 𝛥𝑙 , the longitudinal It is a defect of vision. Any one
strain is 𝛥𝑙/𝑙 = 𝑠𝑙 . Poisson’s ratio suffering with this defect cannot see
is then 𝑠𝑑 /𝑠𝑙 . the near objects. This defect is
 Polaroid generally observed in older people.
Synthetic materials that are used for It can be corrected with the help of
producing polarized light from convex lenses.
unpolarised by dichroism.  Pressure gauge
 Positive crystals It is an instrument that is used for
Doubly refracting crystals in which measuring the pressure of a gas or a
the ordinary ray travels faster as liquid.
compared to an extra ordinary ray  Prime meridian
e.g. quartz. The Greenwich meridian. It is used
 Positron as standard for reckoning longitude
east or west.
 Principle of floatation
 A body floats as a liquid when the
weight of the liquid displaced by it
Q
is equal to its weight.
 Prompt neutrons  Quality of sound
The neutrons emitted during a Majority of musical notes contain
nuclear fission process within less more than one frequency. Quantity
than a microsecond of fussion. of sound is a characteristic of a
 Proton-Proton cycle musical note that depends on
It refers to a chain of nuclear fusion frequencies present in the note. In
reactions which are thought to be each note there is one fundamental
responsible for production of frequency and a number of
energy in the sun. Hydrogen gets overtones. The frequencies of
converted into helium. overtones are integral multiplies of
1 1 1 the fundament frequency but
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 + 1𝐻 + 𝐻
intensity is much low. The quality
→ 21𝐻 + 𝑣 + 𝑒 +
2 1 3 of sound changes with the number
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 𝑣
3 3 4 1 of overtones present and their
2𝐻𝑒 + 2𝐻𝑒 → 2𝐻𝑒 + 2 1𝐻
intensity.
 Pulsar
 Quark
A celestial source of radiation
Hypothetical fundamental particles
emitted in brief (0.03 second to 4
which are postulated to be building
seconds) regular pulses. First
blocks of elementary particles.
discovered in 1968, pulsar is
 Quartz
believed to be a rotating neutron
The most abundant and common
star. The strong magnetic field of
mineral, consisting of crystalline
the neutron star concentrated
silica (silicon dioxide, 𝑆𝑖𝑂2).
charged particles in two directional
 Quartz clock
beams. The pulsing effect occurs as
A clock based on a piezoelectric
the beams rotate. Most pulsars are
crystal of quartz.
radio sources (emit electromagnetic
 Quasars
radiation of radio frequencies ) but
A class of astronomical object that
a few that emit light or X-rays have
appear on optical photographs as
been detected. Over 300 pulsars are
star like but have large redshifts
now known, but is estimated that
quite unlike those of stars.
there are over one million in the
 Quenching
Milky way.
The rapid cooling of a metal by
 Pyrometer
immersing it in a bath of liquid in
It is an instrument that is used for
order to improve its properties.
measurement of very high
 Q-Value
temperatures. The measurement is
It is the amount of energy produced
done by observing the colour
in a nuclear reaction. It is expressed
produced by a substance by heating
in MeV.
or by thermoelectric means.
 quite useful in the study of
R molecular energy levels of liquids.
 Rayleigh’s criterion
 Rad Two sources are just resolvable by
The unit of absorbed radiation. One an optical instrument if the central
rad = absorption of 10-2 joule of maximum of the diffraction pattern
energy in one kilogram of material. of one coincides in position with the
 Radiology first minimum of the diffraction
It is the branch of science that deals pattern of the other.
with X-rays or rays from radioactive  Receiver
substances. Any device or apparatus that
 Radioscopy receives electric signals, waves etc.
It involves the examination of  Recoil
opaque objects with the help of X- Means to fly back
rays.  Rectifier
 Radius of curvature (R) A device that allows the current to
In case of a mirror or a lens it is the flow through it in one direction
radius of the sphere of which a only. It can convert a.c. into d.c. The
mirror or lens surface is a part. commonly used rectifiers are a p-n
 Radius of gyration (K) junction, a diode valve etc.
It is the distance, from the axis of  Red giant
rotation of a body to a point where It is a type of cool giant star that
the whole mass of a body may be emits light in red region of the
considered to be concentrated. spectrum. A normal star expands to
𝐼 red giant as it exhausts its nuclear
It is given by K = √𝑚 Where I is the
fuel.
moment of inertia of body of mass  Red shift
m about the axis of rotation. Because of Doppler effect a shift of
 Rainbow spectrum lines in the spectra of
An arc of seven colours that appears some celestial objects towards the
in the sky due to splitting of sunlight red end of the visible spectrum with
into its constituent colours by the an increase in wave length of the
water droplets present in air because lines.
of refraction and internal reflection  Reflectance
of sunlight by them. It is the ratio of the reflected light to
 Raman effect the incident light on a surface.
When monochromatic light is  Reflecting power
allowed to pass through a It is the ratio of the quantity of
transparent medium it gets scattered energy reflected to the quantity of
and the scattered light contains energy falling on a body per unit
original wave length as well as lines time.
of large wave lengths are known as  Refrigerator
Raman lines and this effect is
known as Raman effect. This is
 It is the device that is used for  Resistance box
producing low temperature and It is a box containing a set of
keeping items at low temperature. combination of resistance coils
 Relative humidity arranged in such a way that any
The amount of water vapour in the desired value of resistance may be
air, expressed as a percentage of the obtained using one or a combination
maximum amount that the air could of these.
hold at a given temperature.  Resistivity (𝝆)
 Relativistic mass It is also known as specific
It is the mass of an object which is resistance. It is defined as the
moving with a velocity v. It is given resistance offered by 1 m length of
by the relation the conductor having an area of
𝑚
M= 02 cross-section of 1 square meter.
√1−𝑣2 Units of 𝜌 are ohm-meter of ohm-
𝑐

Where m0 is the rest mass of the cm.

same object.  Resolving power:
 Relativistic particle It gives the measure of the ability of
A particle moving with a velocity an optical instrument to from
close to the velocity of light, say separate and distinguishable images
greater than 0.1 c, c begin the of two objects very close to each
velocity of light. other. The resolving power of a
 Remanence telescope is given by
The magnetic flux which remains in 1.22𝜆
Resolving power =
𝑎
a magnetic circuit even after the
Where 𝜆 is the wavelength of light
applied magneto motive force is
used and a is the aperture.
removed.
 Retentivity
 Remote sensing
It is the ability to retain
The gathering and recording of
magnetization even after the
information concerning the earth’s
magnetizing force is removed.
surface by techniques that do not
 Reverberation
involve actual contact with the
Refers to the persistence of sound
object or area under study. These
even after the source has stopped
techniques include photography
emitting the sound.
(e.g. aerial photography),
 Reverberation time
multispectral imagery, infrared
It is the time taken by a sound made
imagery, and radar. Remote sensing
in a room to diminish by 60
is generally carried out from aircraft
decibels.
and increasingly, satellites. The
 Reynold number
techniques are used, for example, in
It determines the state of flow liquid
cartography (map making).
through a pipe According to
 Resistance
Reynold number the critical
It is the property of a material by 𝑅𝑛 𝜂
virtue of which it opposes the flow velocity (vc) is given by vc = 𝜌𝐷
of current through it. R = V/I where 𝜌 is the density of liquid,
 Rn is Reynold number and D is the radiation when it is incident on
diameter of the pipe through which some matter surface. The intensity
liquid is flowing- of scattered light varies as 1/𝜆4
If Rn is upto 1000 the flow is (Rayleigh scattering)
streamline or laminar.  Schwartzchild radius
If Rn lies between 1000-2000, flow It is equal to 2GM/c2, where G is the
is unstable. gravitational constant, c is the speed
If Rn is more than 2000, flow is of light, and M is the mass of the
turbulent. body. If the body collapse to such an
 Richter scale extent that its radius is less than the
A logarithmic scale devised in 1935 Schwartzchild radius the escape
by C.F.Richter (1900) to compare velocity becomes equal to the speed
the magnitude of earthquakes. The of light and the object becomes a
scale range from 0 to 10. On this black hole.
scale a value of 2 can just be felt as  Scintillated
a tremor and damage to buildings To twinkle like stars
occurs for values in excess of 6. The  Scintillation
largest shock recorded hand a Refers to the twinkling effect of the
magnitude of 8.9. light of stars.
 Roentgen (R)  Second pendulum
It is a unit of ionizing radiation. A simple pendulum having a time
One, Roengten induces 2.58 × 10-4 period of two seconds.
C of charge per kilogram of dry air.  Seeback effect
 Roentgen rays When the junctions of two metallic
X-rays conductors are maintained at
 Rutherford different temperatures and e.m.f. is
It is defined as the amount of produced across these junctions.
radioactive substance which gives The production of such e.m.f. is
rise to 106 disintegrations per sec. known as seeback effect.
1 curie = 3.7 × 104 Rutherford.  Segre chart
 Rydberg constant A graph wherein the number of
The wavelength of lines of an protons in nuclides is plotted against
1 the number of neutrons.
atomic spectra are given by =
𝜆
1 1  Seismograph
𝑅 (𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ) An instrument that records ground
1 2
Where n1 and n2 are integers, R is oscillations. E.g. those caused by
called Rydberg’s constant 𝑅 = earthquakes, volcanic activity, and
2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑒 4 explosions.
𝑐ℎ3  Semi-conductor
S A substance having conductivity
 Scattering more than an insulator but less than
It is the phenomenon of spreading that of a conductor. The
out of diffusion of a beam of conductivity of a semiconductor
increases with temperature. Pure
 semi-conductors are also known as Refers to an electromagnetic wave
intrinsic semi-conductors. It is of 60 meters or less.
possible to increase the conductivity  Side band
of a semi- conductors are known as Range of frequencies on either side
extrinsic semi-conductors. of the carrier frequency of a
 Semipermeable membrane modulated signal. The width of a
A membrane that is permeable to side-band both and below the
molecules of the solvent but not the modulated wave is equal to the
solute in osmosis. Semipermeable highest modulating frequency.
membranes can be made by  Siemens(Mho)
supporting a film of material (e.g. It is S.I. unit of electrical
cellulose) on a wire gauze of porous conductance 1 Siemen (1 Mho) = 1
pot. A/V.
 Sextant  Significant figures
It is an optical instrument. It is used The number of digits used in a
for the determination of the number specify its accuracy. The
dimensions and distances of distant number 6.532 is a value taken to be
objects. It is based on the principle accurate to four significant figures.
that if the angle subtended by two The number 7320 is accurate only to
ends of an object at the observer’s three significant figures. Similarly
eye is known (measured by the 0.0732 is also only accurate to three
sextant), the distance and significant figure. In these cases the
dimensions of the object can be zeros only indicate the order of
determined with the help of a magnitude of the number, whereas
trigonometric formula. 7.065 is accurate to four significant
 Shadow figures as the zero in this case is
It refers to the dark shape of cast on significant in expressing the value
a surface by an object through of the number.
which light, a form of radiation, can  Silicon chip
not pass, as radiations, travel in a A single crystal of a semiconducting
straight line through a given silicon material, typically having
medium. If one of the sources of micrometer dimensions, fabricated
radiations is small and the object is in such a way that it can perform a
large, a sharp shadow is formed. large number of independent
However if the sources is larger electronic functions.
than the object the shadow formed  S.I. units
is not sharp and shows two distinct This is international system of units
regions. The umbra, or full shadow, comprising of seven basic units.
at the centre, surrounded by These are:
penumbra or partial shadow, no Physical Unit Symbol
radiation reaches umbra but some quantity
radiation reaches penumbra. Length Meter M
 Short wave Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second S It refers to the average rate at which
Temp. Kelvin K solar energy is received from the
Electric Ampere A sun by the earth. It is equal to 1.94
current small calories per minute per square
Light Candela cd centimeter of area perpendicular to
Intensity the sun’s rays. It is equal to 1400
Amount of Mole mol J/s-m2.
substance  Solar day
The time interval that elapses
 Skin effect between two successive
It is the phenomenon wherein an appearances of the sun at the
alternating current tends to meridian.
concentrate in the outer layer of a  Solar system
conductor. The sun, the nine major planets
 Skip distance (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
The minimum distance at which a Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune,
sky wave can be received. This and Pluto) and their natural
arises due to a minimum angle of satellites, the asteroids, the comets
incidence at the ionosphere below and meteoroids. Over 99% of the
which a sky wave is not reflected. mass of the system is concentrated
This minimum angle Is a function of in the sun. The solar system as a
the frequency. whole moves in an approximately
 Sky wave circular orbit about the centre of the
Refers to a radio wave that is galaxy, taking about 2.2× 108 years
propagated upwards from the earth to complete its orbit.
and such a wave reaches a point  Solar wind
after reflection from the ionosphere A continuous outward flow of
and not directly form the charged particles, mostly protons
transmitter. and electrons, from the sun’s corona
 Snell’s law into interplanetary space. The
sin 𝑖 particles are controlled by the sun’s
𝜇= (𝑜𝑟 𝜇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) magnetic field and are able to
sin 𝑟
 Soft iron escape form the sun’s magnetic
It refers to iron that contains small field and are able to escape from the
quantities of carbon. Since it can be sun’s gravitational field because of
easily magnetised and their high thermal energy. The
demagnetized easily so it is used in average velocity of the particles in
transformers, electric bells etc. the vicinity of the earth is about 450
 Solar battery km s-1 and their density at this range
It is device for converting solar is about 8 × 106 protons per cubic
energy into electricity by means of meter.
phot voltaic cells.  Solenoid
 Solar constant It refers to a coil of wire wound over
a cylindrical frame uniformly. Its
 diameter is small as compared to its It is the amount of heat required to
length. When a current is passed raise the temperature of 1 kg of
through it, a magnetic field is substance by 1°C or 1 K. it is
produced inside the coil and parallel expressed in J/g/k or J Kg-1 K-1. The
to its axis. It can also be used as an specific heat of water is maximum.
electromagnet by introducing a core  Spectrograph
of soft iron inside it. An instrument where in a
 Sonic boom: photograph of the spectrum can be
Refers to a loud noise. obtained.
 Sonometer  Spectrometer
It is an instrument that is used for It is an instrument that is used for
studying the vibrations of a fixed analyzing the spectrum of a source
wire or string. It consists of a hollow of light.
wooden box with a wire stretched  Spherical aberration
across its top. The wire is fixed at A defect of image due to the
one end while to the other end paraxial and marginal rays which
passes over a pulley and a load can are coming to focus at different
be suspended from it. Any length of point on the axis of the lens. It can
wire can be set into vibration by be corrected by using parabolic
placing two inverted v-shaped surfaces as reflectors and refractors.
bridges at the ends, by placing  Spontaneous fission
vibrating tunning fork on the Nuclear fission that occurs
sonometer. Resonance is produced independently of external
when the natural frequency of the circumstances and is not initiated by
the impact of a neutron, an energetic
vibrating wire given by (𝑓 =
particles or a photon.
1 𝑇
 Spring balance
√ ) is equal to the frequency of Any instrument with which a force
2𝑙 𝑚

the tunning fork. T is the tension in is measured by the extension

the wire and m is its mass per unit produced in a helical spring. It is
length. used in weighing. The extension
 Space-charge produced is directly proportional to
A region in a vacuum tube or semi- the force (weight).
conductor having some net electric  Stable equilibrium
charge because of excess or A body is said to be in stable
deficiency of electrons. equilibrium if it tends to return to its
 Specific gravity original state when it is slightly
It is the ratio of density of any disturbed form its state.
substance to the density of some  Stem point
other substance taken as standard. It is the temperature at which water
e.g. the density of water at 4°C is boils under a pressure of one
taken as 1. atmosphere.
 Specific heat  Step-down transformer
 It helps in stepping down the local changes in the sun’s magnetic
voltage. field. They appear in cycles having
a period of about 11 years.
 Super conductivity
Refers to complete disappearance of
electrical resistance. It has been
observed in some substances when
In it
𝑁
they are cooled to very low
𝑁𝑆 < 𝑁𝑃 and so 𝑁 𝑆 < 1. The e.m.f. temperatures (very close to absolute
𝑃
of secondry coil is less than that of zero). This phenomenon can be
primary 𝐸𝑆 < 𝐸𝑃 . used for producing large magnetic
 Step-up transformer fields.
It helps in stepping up the voltage.  Surface tension
It is the force per unit length of an
imaginary line drawn in the liquid
surface in equilibrium acting
perpendicular to it at every point
𝑁
In it NS > NP and the ratio 𝑁 𝑆 > 1. and tending to pull the surface apart
𝑃
along the line. It can also be defined
The e.m.f. of secondary coil is
as the work done in increasing the
greater than that of primary ES > EP
surface are of a liquid film by unity.
 Stokes (St)
Units of surface tension are
It is a unit of viscosity in C.G.S.
dynes/cm or N/m.
system.
 Susceptibility
 Stoke’s law
If a bar of iron is placed in a
When a spherical body falls through
magnetic field, it gets magnetised
a viscous medium, it drags the layer
and the pole strength or
of fluid in contact. Due to relative
magnetization depends upon the
motion between layers, the falling
strength of magnetic field. Thus if
body feel a viscous force F given by
𝐻⃗ is magnetic intensity or
F = 6 𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
Where r = radius of body magnetizing field intensity and 𝐼 is
𝐼
V = velocity of body intensity of magnetization then 𝐻 =
𝜂 = Coefficienat of viscosity 𝑋 is the susceptibility of the
 Sublimation specimen. The value of X
Change from solid to gaseous state (susceptibility) and 𝜇
without passing through liquid (permeability) are high for
state. ferromagnetic substances.
 Subsonic  Synchronous orbit or
Speed less than the speed of sound. geosynchronous orbit
 Sunspot An orbit of the earth made by an
Dark patches observed on the sun’s artificial with a period exactly equal
surface that are regions of cool gas. to the earth’s period of rotation on
Their presence is connected with its axis, ie. 23 hours 56 minutes 4.1
 seconds. If the orbit is included to It refers to the process used for
the equatorial plane the satellite will increasing the toughness of an alloy
appear from the earth to trace out a by heating it to a predetermined
figure-of-eight track once ever 24 temperature, maintaining it at this
hours. If the orbit lies in the temperature for predetermined time
equatorial plane and is circular, the and then cooling it to room temp. at
satellite will appear to be stationary. a predetermined rate.
This is called a stationary orbit (or  Tensile strength
geostationary orbits, with three or The resistance of a material to
more spaced round the orbit to give longitudinal stress. It is measured
worldwide coverage. by minimum amount of longitudinal
stress needed to break the material.
 Terminal speed
T The constant speed finally attained
 Telestar by a body moving through a fluid
It refers to tone of a series of low under gravity when there is a zero
altitude, active communication resultant force acting on it. See
satellites for broad band microwave Stokes’s law.
communication and satellite
2𝑟 2 (𝜌 − 𝜌𝑖 )𝑔
tracking in space. 𝑣0 =
9𝜂
 Temperature gradient
Where 𝜌 = Density of spherical
Rate of change of temperature with
body and 𝜌𝑖 = Density of fluid
distance.
If 𝜌 > 𝜌𝑖 ⇒ The body will move
 Temperature scale
Any temperature scale consist of downward
two fixed points which generally If 𝜌 < 𝜌𝑖 ⇒ The body will move
correspond to two easily upward
reproducible systems. These are  Thermal capacity or Heat
assigned certain definite values and capacity
the interval between them is divided It is the amount of heat required to
into an equal number of parts. The raise the temperature of a body by
Celsius scale is most commonly 1°C. It is equal to the product of
used and the fixed points in it are the mass of the body and the specific
ice point (0°C) and stem point heat. It is expressed in J/°C or J/K.
(100°C). Interval between them is  Thermal diffusion
divided into 100 equal parts, each It refers to the diffusion that occurs
part being equal to 1°C, other scales in fluid due to temperature gradient.
used are, Fahrenheit, Romer and It is used to separate heavier gas
Kelvin. These are related to Celsius molecules from lighter ones by
scale as- maintaining a temperature gradient
𝐶 𝐹 − 32 𝑅 𝐾 − 273 over a volume of gas containing
= = = particles of different masses. This
100 180 80 100
 Tempering method is also used to separate
gaseous isotopes of an element.
 Thermal neutrons used for measurement of
Refers to neutrons of very low temperatures.
speed and energy (~ 0.1 𝑒𝑉)  Thermo e.m.f.
 Thermal reactor Seeback discovered that if two
It is a type of nuclear reactor in dissimilar metals are joined together
which the nuclear fission reactions to form a closed circuit and their
are caused by thermal neutrons. two junctions are maintained at
 Thermion different temperatures an e.m.f. is
Refers to an ion that is emitted by an developed and an electric current
incandescent material. flows in the circuit. This e.m.f.
 Thermionic current developed is known as thermos
It refers to the electric current that is e.m.f. is given by
1
produced due to flow of thermions. 𝐸 = 𝛼𝑡 + 2 𝛽𝑡 2
 Thermionic emission Where t = temperature difference of
It refers to the emission of electrons hot and cold junction in °C, 𝛼 and 𝛽
from the surface of a substance are constants which are
when it is heated. It forms the basics characteristic of metals forming the
of the thermionic valve and the thermocouple and are known as
electron gun in cathode ray tubes. seebeck coefficients.
The emitted current density is given  Thermoelectricity
by Richardson – Dushman equation The electricity produced due to
J = AT2𝑒 −𝜙/𝑘𝑇 themo e.m.f.is called
Where T = Thermodynamic temp. thermoelectricity.
of the emitter  Thermoelectric power
𝜙 = Work function It refers to the rate of change of the
k = Boltzmann constant thermos e.m.f. of the thermocouple
A = Some constant with the temperature of the hot
 Thermistor junction.
It refers to a semi-conductor, whose  Thermopile
electrical resistance changes rapidly It is an arrangement of
with change in temperature. It is thermocouple in series. Such an
used to measure temperature very arrangement is used to generate
accurately. thermoelectric current or for
 Thermocouple detecting and measuring radiant
It consists of two metallic junctions energy.
of different metals whose junctions  Thermostat
are kept at different temperatures, A device which is used to keep the
an e.m.f. develops across these temperature in a place within in a
which is proportional to the particular range. Thermostats are
temperature difference. A present in a number of common
measurement of e.m.f. enables one household devices such as cookers,
to calculate the temperature so it is refrigerators, irons, freezers and
 heating boilers. Many thermostats It refers to a sound considered with
are bimetallic strips. reference to its quality, strength,
 Threshold source etc.
It refers to the minimum value of a  Tonne (Metric Ton)
parameter that will produce a A unit of mass 1 Tonne = 103 kg.
specified effect.  Torr
 Threshold of hearing A unit of pressure. 1 torr = 1333.2
That minimum intensity level of a microbars. One torr is equal to the
sound wave which is audible. It pressure of 1 mm of mercury.
occurs at a loudness of about 4  Torricelli’s theorem
phons. It gives us the velocity of a fluid,
 Timbre coming out of a vessel, at a point at
The characteristic quality of sound. a height h below its surface.
It is independent of pitch and According to it. V = √2𝑔ℎ
loudness but depends upon the  Torsion
relative strength of components of It refers to the twisting of an object
different frequencies, determined by two equal and opposite torques.
by resonance. It depends on the  Torsional pendulum
number and intensity of the In such a pendulum moment of
overtones present. restoring forces, 𝜏 = −𝑘𝜃
 Tomography 𝐼
The use X-rays to photograph a Time period 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐾
selected plane of a human body with Where
other planes eliminated. The CAT K = constant torsion in the thread
(computerized axial tomography) I = Moment of inertia of the rotating
scanner is a ring-shaped X-ray body about the thread
machine that rotates through 180°  Torsional balance
around the horizontal patient An instrument for measuring very
making numerous X-ray weak forces. It consists of a
measurements every few degrees. horizontal rod fixed to the end of a
The vast amount of information vertical wire or fibre or to the centre
acquired is built into a three- of a taut horizontal wire. The forces
dimensional image of the tisues to be measured are applied to the
under examination by scanner’s end or ends of the rod. The turning
own computer. The patient is of the rod may be measured by the
exposed to a dose of X-rays only displacement of a beam of light
some 20% of that used in a normal reflected from a plane mirror
diagnostic X-ray. attached to it.
 Ton  Total internal reflection
It is a unit of weight 1 ton = 2000 For such a reflection the ray must
pounds = 907.18 kg. pass from a denser to a rarer
 Tone medium. When a ray of light travels
from a more refractive medium to a
 less refractive medium it undergoes modulation i.e. a modulation of
total internal reflection, if angle of temporary nature.
incidence is greater than critical  Transmutation
angle 𝜃 , which can be defined as The process in which one nuclide is
𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛1 =1 𝑛2 converted into another nuclide.
2
 Transponder
 Transmitter
Refers to a radio or radar receiver,
 The equipment used to
that automatically transmits a reply
generate and broadcast
promptly on reception of a certain
radio-frequency
signal.
electromagnetic waves for
 Triangle law of vectors
communication purposes. It
It states, “ if two vectors can be
consists of a carrier-wave
represented in magnitude and
generator, a device for
direction by two sides of triangle
modulating the carrier wave
taken in order then the resultant
in accordance with the
vector can be represented in
information to be
magnitude and direction by the third
broadcast, amplifiers, and
side of the triangle taken in opposite
an aerial system.
order.” Where 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ are two vectors
 The part of a telephone
and 𝑐 is the resultant vector. 𝑐 =
system that converts sound
into electrical signals. 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗
 Trajectory  Triple point
It is the path traversed by a It is the temperature at which the
projectile, rocket etc. gas, liquid and solid phase of a
 Trans-conductance substance can coexist. Triple point
It is the radio of change in plate of water is 273.16 K and 0.46 cm of
current to change in grid voltage at mercury. All the three phases of
constant plate voltage. It is water (solid, liquid and gas) coexist
expressed in mhos. at this temperature and pressure and
 Transducer all the phases are equally stable.
Refers to a device that receives  Triton
energy from one source and Nucleus of tritum ( 31𝐻 ) atom.
retransmit it in a different form to  Troposphere
another system or media. It is the region of atmosphere which
 Transformer extends upto a height of about 16
It is a device that is used to convert km above the earth’s surface at the
a large alternating current at low equator and to a height of about 8
voltage into a small alternating km at the poles. The temperature in
current at high voltage or vice- this region decreases with increase
versa. in height.
 Transients  Tunnel diode
It refers to the non-periodic portion A semiconductor diode, based on
of a wave or signal transient the tunnel effect. It consists of a
 highly doped p-n semiconductor A transistor wherein current flow is
junction, which short circuits with due to the movement of majority
negative bias and has negative carriers only.
resistance over part of its range  Upthrust
when forward biased. Its fast speed Refers to the upward force that acts
of operation makes it a useful on an object when it is immersed in
device in many electronic fields. a fluid. It is equal to the mass of the
 Tunnel effect fluid displaced by the object.
An effect in which electrons are
able to tunnel through a narrow
potential barrier that would
V
constitute a forbidden region if he  Vacuum
electrons were treated as classical A space that is totally devoid of
particles. matter. Generally it refers to a space
 Turbulent flow form which air has been removed
Flow of liquid wherein the speed of and where the pressure is very low.
the fluid changes rapidly in  Valence band
magnitude and direction. The Range of energies in a semi-
motion of a fluid becomes turbulent conductor which corresponds to
when its speed increases beyond a energy state that can be occupied by
certain typical speed. the valency electrons in the crystal.
 Twilight  Van-de-graff accelerator
The soft diffused light from the sky It is a machine that is used to
when the sun is below the horizon. accelerate charged particles.
 Tyndall effect  Vander wall’s equation of state
It refers to the scattering of light by It is an equation of state for real
particles in its path and the beam of gases.
light becomes visible. 𝑛2 𝑎
(𝑃 + 2 ) (𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉
Where V = Volume of gas
U R = Gas constant
 Umbra T = Absolute temperature
It is the region of complete shadow. n = Number of moles of gas
 Uncertainty principle a, b = constant called
It state, “It is not possible to find Vander Wall’s constant.
accurately and simultaneously both  Vander wall forces :
the positon and velocity of a moving These are very weak attractive force
particle.” Mathematically 𝜟x.𝜟p = that exist between the atoms and
ℎ
molecules of all the substances.
4𝜋
Where 𝛥𝑥 = Uncertainty in These are short range forces and
position, arise due to molecular dipoles.
𝛥𝑝 = Uncertainty in momentum  Venturimeter
 Unipolar transistor It is an apparatus used to find the
rate of flow of liquids when the
 motion of fluid is steady and non- arranged in such a way that they
turbulent. produce an electromotive force.
 Vernier  Voltameter
A small movable device having It is an electrolytic cell and is used
graduated scale of a sextant. It is to carry out the process of
used for measuring a fractional part electrolysis.
of one of the fixed division of the  Voltmeter
fixed scale. The smallest It is an instrument that is used for
measurement which can be made measuring the potential difference
using a Vernier instrument is equal across two points in a circuit. It is
to the difference between 1 main always connected in parallel across
scale division (smallest) and 1 the desired points in an electrical
vernier scale division. circuit.
 Vernier caliper  Volume
A caliper made up of two pieces It refers to the space occupied by a
sliding across one another, one body.
having a graduated scale and the  Volumetric
other a Vernier. Refers to measurement by volume.
 Viscosity
It is the property of the fluid by
virtue of which it opposes the
W
relative motion between its different  Watt-meter
layers. It is also called internal It is an instrument that is used for
friction of the fluid. measuring power consumed in an
 Visible radiation electric circuit.
Radiation in the wave length range  Wavelet
A small wave
of 3800-7600 𝐴̇ . It is visible to
 Water equivalent of a substance
human eye.
It is the amount of water that would
 Visual-Display Unit (VDU)
need the same quantity of that for
The part of a computer system or
being heated through the same
word processor on which text or
range of temperature as required by
diagrams are displayed. It consists
the substance for being heated
of a cathode-ray tube and usually
through a given range of
has its own input keyboard attached.
temperature.
 Voltage stabilizer
 Wave-particle duality
A device or circuit to maintain a
According to dual nature of matter,
voltage at its output terminals that is
there is wave associated with every
the substantially constant and
moving particle and vice-versa. The
independent of other changes in the
wave length of a wave associated
input voltage or in the load current.
with a moving particle having a
 Voltaic cell
momentum, p, is given by 𝜆 = h/p
A cell having two electrodes of
where h is Plank’s constant.
different metals dipped in the
solution of their soluble salts and  Weber
 One weber is the magnetic flux  Wiedemann-Franz law
linked with a surface of magnetic It state that for all metals, the ratio
field one Tesla over an area of 1 sq 𝑘
= constant, where k is the
𝜎𝑇
meter.
thermal conductivity. 𝜎 is electrical
1 Wb = 1 Tm2.
conductivity and T is the absolute
 Weightlessness
temperature of the substance.
It refers to the state, experienced by
 Wien’s displacement law
a person in an orbiting space craft,
According to it, for a black-body
of loss of weight.
radiation 𝜆𝑚 T = constant
 Wheatstone bridge
Where 𝜆𝑚 = wavelength
It is an electrical circuit that is used
corresponding to maximum energy
to measure the electrical resistance.
radiation.
It consists of resistances connected
T = Absolute temperature of the
in four arms. A galvanometer (G) is
body.
 Wireless
Means having no wire
 Work Function (𝝓)
It is the minimum energy that is
required to overcome the surface
force so as to liberate the electrons
from the metal surface. It is
measured in electron volts.
connected across two opposite
junctions, and a source of e.m.f. is
connected across the remaining two X
junctions as shown in the diagram.  X-ray
If three of the resistances P, Q, R are It is a form of electromagnetic
known, the fourth (S) can be radiation of shorter wavelength as
determined. Keeping the resistance compared to visible light. X-ray can
P, Q fixed the resistance R is varied penetrate through solid and can
till the galvanometer shows zero ionize gases.
deflection. When this is achieved  X-ray Diffraction
𝑃 𝑅 The diffraction of X-rays by a
= 𝑆 . For maximum sensitivity all
𝑄 crystal. The wavelengths of X-rays
the four resistances should be of the are comparable in size to the
same order. distances between atoms in most
 White dwarf crystals, and the repeated pattern of
Refer to any of a large size of very the crystal lattice acts like a
faint stars that are considered to be diffraction grating for X-rays.
in the last stage of stellar evolution.
Its nuclear fuel is completely
exhausted and it collapses, under its Y
own gravitation, into a small but  Yard
very dense body.
 The former Imperial standard unit potential. Such a diode is used as a
of length. In 1963 yard was voltage regulator.
redefined as 0.9144 meter exactly.  Zero-gravity
 Yield point It refers to the condition wherein the
When a rod or wire of certain apparent effect of gravity becomes
material is subjected to a slowly zero as on a body in orbit.
increasing tension, the point at  Zero point energy
which a small increase in tension It is the energy possessed by atoms
produces a sudden and large or molecules of a substance at
increase in length is called the yield absolute zero of temperature. It can
point. not be explained by classical
physics but has been accounted for
Z as a quantum effect.
 Zeeman effect  Zeroth law of thermodynamics
It refers to the splitting up of single According to it, whenever two
lines in a spectrum into a group of bodies A and B are in thermal
closely spaced lines. This effect is equilibrium with another body C
observed when the substance then bodies A and B will also be in
emitting the spectrum is placed in a thermal equilibrium with each
strong magnetic field. The study of other.
this effect is used in the study of  Zero vector or Null vector
atomic structure. A vector whose magnitude is zero is
 Zener diode known as a zero vector. The
It is a semi-conductor diode where direction of zero vector is nor
in each side of junction is highly defined.
doped. When the junction is reverse
biased, a sharp increase in the
current occurs at well defined