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Frederick Ricci
Nova Southeastern University, North Miami Beach, Miami, Florida, USA
Abstract
Purpose This paper aims to review the history of critical thinking as a seminal and foundational skill for small groups. The paper shows that much of the team research focuses on the elementary functions of decision-making processes, task fullment, and project management. Virtual teaming research adds some of the complexities introduced by working in and between cultures, across time zones and related difculties in coordination and meaning-making activities for the virtual team. Design/methodology/approach The paper seeks to review the denitions of critical thinking, and review the literature relative to small group activities and the impacts and requirements of critical thinking for effective team functioning. The notion of reective journaling is introduced as a way in which to introduce improved critical thinking into the organization at the level of the individual for performance organizational performance. Findings The paper nds that critical thinking within teams will improve organizational performance. It will also enhance any training and development initiatives. The topic is introduced as an information analysis of the eld of critical thinking, and its impact on individuals working in teams. Authorial content is presented which can become the elements of a critical thinking checklist for team practitioners in the organization to enhance critical thinking at the individual, organization and societal levels. Originality/value In this paper useful ideas for established or to be established teams and improving performance are shown. Keywords Critical thinking, Team working, United States of America Paper type Research paper

Critical thinking in teams In our haste to understand the critical dimensions of postmodern organization and the concept of teams, we often overlook a common and important element to human activity: critical thinking. What is it and why is it important? Critical thinking, was rst encouraged by philosophers in about 350BC . The writings of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle encouraged their followers to explore theories and concepts: their philosophies espoused that the end result of analysis of facts and conditions, were often not what they appeared on the surface; exploration and analysis of the conditions of fact delivery and accompanying decision making was necessary, in order to more fully explore the benets and risks of any decision. Dewey and Ennis (in Burbach et al. (2004) continued the conversation begun so many years ago. According to Dewey, critical thinking involved the suspension of judgment and a healthy skepticism. Ennis suggested that critical thinking is achieved when students are assisted in the engagement of thinking that is reexive; or, said another way, when students are encouraged to rethink outcomes of their opinions as a way of further exploring the content of their own thought. To perform these critical

Team Performance Management Vol. 12 No. 7/8, 2006 pp. 272-277 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1352-7592 DOI 10.1108/13527590610711822

cognitive functions results in a better understanding of the elements of a decision, and an assurance that the best alternatives have been selected. Modern theories of critical thinking continue with the thoughts of Logan (in Burbach et al. (2004)) and the National Commission on Excellence in Education in 1983 wherein critical examination of the conditions of American education explored the explicit contribution of critical thinking to the education of American youth. These theorists lay the suboptimal results of the critical thinking outcome squarely at the feet of our educational institutions. Logan conducted a study of critical thinking that involved 874 sociology students, from which he concluded that every college level (from freshmen to graduate students) scored very low in the ability to recognize uncritical or unsound thinking. While this is a difcult piece of information to grasp for its implications, the results of the investigations of the National Commission on Excellence in Education in 1983 in their report, A Nation at Risk, the Commission encouraged the higher education community to take a serious look at the faltering achievements of US students. In a rash of study of critical thinking in that timeframe, Norris (1985) concluded that the critical thinking performance of students was lower than it should be at every stage of schooling. Keeley et al. (in Burbach et al., 2004) also concluded that while college seniors outperformed freshmen, college seniors still exhibited deciencies in critical evaluation. It was clear in the mid-1980s attention had been drawn to a decit, which crept in to the educational systems, and ultimately to the workplace in the USA. It is clear that the concept of critical thinking of the leadership and management of teams is of importance in the face of the foregoing data. This author believes it is important to raise the dialogue here, and to begin an exploration of the concept of critical thinking and its application to teams. To do so is to turn the direction of our research results relative to critical thinking in the direction of improved performance without our workplaces. What was once missed in our schools can be re-instituted in our work organizations for the economic health and gain of the individuals in the workplace, as well as our economic and competitive infrastructures as a society. Current denitions of critical thinking While the denitions which follow identify different faces of the concept of critical thought and thinking, the direction of the investigation offered through critical thinking is clear: to evaluate and analyze the contents of an issue under review so as to understand its contents from a rigorous and robust review process. The rhetorical nature of the conversations in critical thinking are objective, thorough and incisive; that is, the process is intended to be reective in nature and point out benets and weaknesses in the propositions, arguments and results of the issue under review. Various authors have used different terminology to describe the function and activities of critical thinking. A few are offered here in service to the discussion. Critical thinking examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions (Petress, 1984). Warnick and Inch (1994) describe critical thinking as the ability to explore a problem, question, or situation; to integrate all of the available information about the issue under review and arrive at a solution or hypothesis to justify ones position. In both of these denitions, it is clear to see that the condition of critical thinking encourages the individual to explore and investigate the assumptions, biases, and end-results of the decisions of another, regardless of the

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position or veracity of the individual within the society. This is of critical importance in organizations, as there is evidence that the informal and formal culture of an organization often preclude critical thinking in favor of belonging to a group of decision makers and their attending philosophical opinions. This tact is an outcome, even in the face of the organization, which achieves suboptimal results for adopting certain philosophies. Warnick and Inch (1994) identify the ability to review the arguments and propositions of decision makers for their applicability to the problem solved, as well as the related hypotheses of the authors of a decision, as necessary to effective critical thinking and related outcomes. This list of denitions shows the many faces of critical thinking in service to effective results. Rhetorical and dynamic discussion results in more effective decisions and accompanying improvements in organizational performance. Team performance and critical thinking Hollenbeck et al. (1995) indicated that team members whose recommendations are uncorrelated or negatively correlated (i.e. in conict) provide more value as a unit than do team members whose recommendations are correlated high and positively. Hollenbeck was quick to point out that pre-discussion disagreement appears to stimulate the quality of group decision making, but this positive effect breaks down quickly when conict becomes more intense. To support this conclusion, Carnevale and Probst (1998) showed that compared with a control conditions in which no conict was induced, participants were more exible in their thinking and more creative in their problem solutions than when they anticipated a cooperative negotiation (low conict) with another individual. When participants anticipated a competitive, hostile negotiation (high conict), however, cognitive exibility and creative thinking decreased substantially. Therefore, a little conict stimulates information processing, but as conict intensies, the cognitive system shuts down, information processing is impeded, and team performance is likely to suffer. A robust team conversation concerning the issues under review, together with a culture which allows for an engaged and investigatory conversation, will yield better decision making results and create the conditions of a more inclusive, participatory environment. It would appear that there could be a checklist for any organization to visit and through assessment with the checklist to determine of the conditions of effective decision-making prevail in service to the organization. Check your organizational environment While the denitions and constructs, which describe critical thinking, are numerous, they reduce down to a vital few concepts. As you organize your teams and task, them for improved organization performance, a simple checklist can be conceived of the following information. Application of the checklist on a routine basis can aid the organization in its training and development exercises, team selection processes, and overall reward structures to ensure that the best critical thinking concepts are embedded in to the organizational culture to enhance individual and organizational performance.

A view of ideas are offered by authors: Petress (1984) identies critical thinking as a set of characteristics which need to be present in a decision making process. Information and the use of information can be critically evaluated if the following conditions are present: . Sufciency: The thinker rates the evidenced, based on the fact that there is adequate support claims for the propositions and arguments made. . Relevance: The thinker rates the evidence presented as pertinent to the issues at hand. . Reliability: The support arguments have a good track record. . Consistency: The supporting elements are internally and externally consistent with each other, with what we know from other experiences, observations, and sources. In other words, we have enough information to make a good analysis and evaluation of the issue under review. . Recency: The supporting elements are current rather than out-of-date. . Access: Supporting materials are open for receivers verication. . Objectivity: Supporting materials are fair and undistorted or originate from expert sources. Full disclosure of the sources of information, are revealed and open to scrutiny. Ferrett (1997) suggests that the following are characteristics of a critical thinker: . The critical thinker asks pertinent questions. The questions and the discussion are focused on the issue at hand. . The critical thinker assesses the statements, which are made for their veracity and coherence, and evaluates the arguments and their accompanying propositions and hypothesis for value, objectivity and focus on the issue under review. . The critical thinker is able to admit a lack of understanding or that the information available is not substantive enough to make a good analysis and evaluation of the issue under review. . The critical thinker has a sense of curiosity, and is an active investigator of facts, opinions and points of view. . The critical thinker has an interest in nding new solutions. In this way, the critical thinker is curious and always seeking continuous improvement in understanding in the world. . The critical thinker is able to clearly dene a set of criteria, for analyzing ideas. In this way, the critical thinker is a subject-matter-expert in the area that he/she is analyzing, and therefore, can contribute to an evaluation of the criteria for analyzing the ideas under review. . The critical thinker is wiling to examine his/her beliefs, assumptions, and opinions and weigh them against facts. . The critical thinker is always willing to listen carefully and is able to give feedback. This again presupposes that the individual is a subject-matter-expert in the area of review, and that the individual is able to give the appropriate feedback necessary.

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The critical thinker suspends judgment until all of the facts have been gathered and considered. The critical thinker looks for evidence to support assumptions and beliefs. The critical thinker is able to adjust opinions when new facts are found. The critical thinker looks for proof that a set of statements is true and represent the best fact available in a eld of practice. The critical thinker examines problems closely. The critical thinker is able to reject information that is incorrect or irrelevant. The critical thinker is able to see that critical thinking itself is a lifelong process of self-assessment and learning. The critical thinker takes on the role of lifelong learning as a challenge and applies to that challenge to make contributions in the world.

One approach to integrating critical thinking It has been shown that application of reective learning promotes critical self-awareness and improves both individual and team performance among undergraduate students. Teamwork may be very stressful for team leaders and members alike given interpersonal and task conicts, the pressure of deadlines and performance standards, and resource scarcity can be negative performance effects on members of teams, both in academia and the workplace. The personal journal may be a manner in which an organization can promote the integration of critical thinking and reection in to the team environment without undue emphasis on the shift in culture. Boyd and Fales (in Loo and Thorpe, 2004) dene reection as the process of internally examining and exploring issues of concern. In most cases, the issue of concern is triggered by an experience which has resulted in the individual creating meaning surrounding the event and which has resulted in a conceptual perspective. Reective journaling aids the individual in addressing these issues in a series of stages, which promote learning and the eventual movement to a new critical perspective. Boyd and Fales (1983) identify the three stages of critical reexivity as follows: (1) Awareness: an event stimulates an uncomfortable thought or feeling; or, positive thoughts or feelings, about a learning situation or event. (2) Critical analysis: bringing to bear relevant knowledge and experiences as well as the application of new knowledge resulting from the analysis process. (3) Learning: development of a new perspective based upon ones critical analysis and the application of new knowledge to the learning situation under reection. This reective learning process has been used in nursing and teacher education disciplines, to enhance individual learning effectiveness, including critical and creative thinking. Introduction of such a personal evaluative process can create an intervention at the level of the individual, which will shift perspectives in the workplace at the level of the ACTOR. As ACTORS in the system share their perspectives, shifts will occur naturally in critical thinking, allowing for more openness of experience and opinion to be shared. This is one of a series of ideas, which will be offered, in this teaming journal to introduce effective critical thinking in to an organizational culture.

Improved critical thought in the workplace While it is clear from the research of the early 1980s, as well as more recent information regarding the performance of our society amongst our international educational rankings, that our education system is in need of improvement, there is much we can do to improve our workplace performance as team practitioners in the workplace. A simple checklist, as well as training and development initiatives geared to enhance critical thinking of individuals in the workplace will go a long way to achieving individual and organizational excellence. Join me in this campaign for a renewed emphasis on critical thinking for an improved societal, organizational, and individual performance through critical outcomes. Improve your organizational team performance by engaging your organization in the dialogue surrounding the cultural implications of an active critical thinking environment in the organization, as well as the enhancement of training and development initiatives for the improvement of critical thinking skills. The success of our individual workers, our success in institutions, and; as a society in the global enterprise system, depend in part, on our critical-thinking competencies.
References Boyd, E.M. and Fales, A.W. (1983), Reective learning: key to learning from experience, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 23 No. 2, pp. 99-117. Burbach, M., Markin, G. and Fritz, S. (2004), Teaching critical thinking in an introductory leadership course utilizing active learning strategies: conrmatory study, Mark College Student Journal, Vol. 383, September, p. 481. Carnevale, P. and Probst, T. (1998), Social values and social conict in creative problem solving and categorization, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 74, pp. 1300-9. Ferrett, S.K. (1997), Peak Performance: Success in College and Beyond, 2nd ed., Glencoe, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Hollenbeck, J., Ilgen, D., Sego, D., Hedlund, J., Major, D. and Phillips, J. (1995), Multilevel theory of team decision-making: decision performance in teams incorporating distributed expertise, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 809, pp. 292-316. Loo, R. and Thorpe, K. (2004), Using reective learning journals to improve individual and team performance, Team Performance Management Journal: An International Journal, Vol. 8 No. 5, pp. 134-9. Norris, S.P. (1985), Critical Thinking Skills and Teacher Education, ERIC Digest 3-88, May. Petress, K. (1984), Critical thinking: an extended denition, Education, Vol. 124 No. 3, p. 461. Warnick, B. and Inch, E. (1994), Critical Thinking and Communication, 2nd ed., Macmillan, New York, NY. Further reading Halpern, D. (1996), Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking, Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Corresponding author Sam M. Natale can be contacted at: natale3@ adelphi.edu To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

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