10/25/22, 4:19 PM Solid Mechanics: Theory and Examples

Solid Mechanics: Theory and Examples

Dr. Sam Macharia
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10/25/22, 4:19 PM Solid Mechanics: Theory and Examples

Table of Contents
1. Simple Stress and Strain
1.1. Loading
1.2. Direct or Normal Stress (σ )
1.3. Direct or Normal Strain (ϵ)
1.4. Elastic Materials (Hooke’s Law, F = ke )
1.5. Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus, E )
1.6. Tensile Test
1.7. Poisson’s Ratio (v)
1.8. Modulus of Rigidity (G )
1.9.  A bar with various cross-sections
1.10.  A bored circular cross-section
1.11.  A stressed coupling
1.12.  Extension of tapered bar
1.13.  Error of using mean diameter
1.14.  Rectangular tapered bar ASSIGNMENT
1.15.  Load-extension graph ASSIGNMENT
2. Compound Bars
2.1.  A concrete column with steel reinforcement
2.2.  Encased composite bar
2.3.  A steel rod and brass bush ASSIGNMENT
2.4.  Buttwelded stanchion ASSIGNMENT
3. Thermal Stresses and Strains
3.1.  Stress not to be exceeded
3.2.  Stress when temperature falls
3.3.  Thermal stress of a tapered bar
3.4.  Stress, strain, and modulus of elasticity ASSIGNMENT
3.5.  Stress when temperature rises ASSIGNMENT
4. Tortion of Circular Shafts
4.1.  Twisting solid cylinder
References

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Mechanics of solids may also go by the names mechanics of materials or strength of materials.

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1. Simple Stress and Strain

This section covers idealized simple stress and strain. In more complex cases, some of these
 simplifications may not apply.

1.1. Loading
Components of engineering structures or mechanisms experience various forces. For example, the cylindrical bar below is
used in a lifting mechanism and so it is subjected to tension force along the axis.

A member of a mechanism may experience loading in one of the following ways.

(a) Static, dead, or non-fluctuating loads e.g. force due to gravity

(b) Live loads e.g. train on the railway
(c) Impact or shock loads e.g. hammering
(d) Fatigue, fluctuating, or altering loads e.g. repeated loaded swivel, crack propagation

1.2. Direct or Normal Stress ( σ)

This is when a uniform-structured member or a bar is subjected to uniform tension or compression.


F (load) N
σ (stress) = (1)
2
A (area) m

1.3. Direct or Normal Strain ( ϵ)

This is a dimensionless measure of a change in length of a member, after it has been subjected to tension or compression.


ΔL (change in length)
ϵ (strain) = (2)
L (original length)

Strain may be expressed as a percentage, ϵ =

ΔL

L
× 100% . Tensile stress and strain are considered positive, while
compressive ones are considered negative.

1.4. Elastic Materials (Hooke’s Law, F = ke )

A member is said to be elastic or obey Hooke’s law if it returns to its original length when the load is withdrawn. In this
case, the stress is proportional to strain.


σ
= constant (3)
ϵ

Common classification of materials:

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Homogeneous material — uniform structure without any flaws or discontinuities e.g. steel
Inhomogeneous material — the structure varies from point to point e.g. concrete, some cast iron
Isotropic — uniform properties throughout in all directions
Anisotropic — varying properties
Othotropic — different properties in different planes e.g. wood, some composites

Here, we assume homogeneous materials with isotropic properties.

1.5. Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus, E )

The constant derived above, within which Hooke’s law applies, is referred to as the modulus of elasticity or the Young’s
modulus, E.

σ
= E (4)

 ϵ

F ΔL FL
E = / =
A L AΔL

The modulus of elasticity is assumed to be the same, both in tension or in compression. Since its value is large for most
engineering materials, × 10 N /m
9 2
, the strain will be small, 0.3% . Usually, the deformations are typically small with
respect to the original dimension.

1.6. Tensile Test

The modulus of elasticity is determined by carrying out a standard test as shown in the figure below. In this test, a circular
bar of a uniform cross-section is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load until failure occurs. The change in the
gauge length is recorded as the loading operation continues.

([Link]
Figure 1. Tensile test.

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Origin to point A: Hooke’s law is obeyed. Stress is proportional to strain.

At point A: limit of proportionality
Between points A and B: the material may still be elastic but Hooke’s law is not obeyed.
At point B: elastic limit
In most practical cases, points A and B are coincident.
Beyond point B: plastic deformation
Strains are not totally recoverable and permanent deformations are recorded when load is removed.
At point C: upper yield point
At point D: lower yield point
A rapid increase in strain occurs without a corresponding increase in stress.
Between points E and F: necking occurs
The stress reaches the maximum value, the ultimate tensile strength.
At point F: the specimen breaks

The ductility is the capacity of a material to allow large plastic deformations.

For some materials, say, non-ferrous and high-carbon steel, the difference between points C and D cannot be detected.
In such cases, a proof stress is used to show the onset of plastic strain.

1.7. Poisson’s Ratio (v)

When a bar is subjected to a tension load, it experiences an increase in length, ΔL, giving a longitudinal strain in the bar,
ϵ Long .

ΔL
ϵ Long =
L

The breath, b, and the depth, d, of the bar will also reduce, thereby altering the lateral dimensions of the bar. The lateral
strain, ϵLat , can be given by the following equation.

Δb Δd
ϵ Lat = − = −
b d

ϵ Lat Δd L
v (Poisson's ratio) = = − × (5)
ϵ Long d ΔL

 ϵ Long =
σ Long

E
=
σ

σ
ϵ Lat = v × (6)
E

1.8. Modulus of Rigidity ( G)

1.8.1. Shear Stress ( τ )

F (shear load)
τ (shear stress) = (7)
A (area resisting shear)

 F
τ (in double shear stress) = (8)
2×A

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1.8.2. Shear Strain ( γ )

ΔL
γ = (9)
L

The modulus of rigidity, G, or shear modulus is comparable to modulus of elasticity and it is calculated as follows.

 G =
γ
= constant (10)

Before attempting a question, make sure you understand the fundamental concept. Draw sketches
where necessary. Make sure you derive your equations correctly, then substitute the values. This is
useful in preparing a general algorithm and reducing approximation errors.
 Your answers should be in SI units and scientific notation. Use the following form p. qrs × 10t
units . Where p, q, r, s is a number between 0 − 9 , t is a signed integer, and units is the relevant
SI units. This is useful in establishing a quick objective meaning of size/scale.

1.9.  A bar with various cross-sections

A sectional bar of E = 210 GN /m
2
is subjected to an axial tensile load of F1 = F 2 = 25 kN . The
circular section Cs1 has a diameter of 25 mm . A square cross-section of dimension Cs2 = 40 mm , and
circular section Cs3 = 20 mm in diameter. L1 , ,
= 200 mm L2 = 110 mm L3 = 450 mm

What is the stress in each section and the total extension of the sectional bar?

([Link]
Figure 2. Sectional bar.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

1.10.  A bored circular cross-section

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A 30 mm diameter bar is subjected to an axial tensile load of 115 kN . Under the action of this load
a 200 mm gauge length is found to extend 0.15 × 10 −3
mm . Determine the modulus of elasticity
for the bar material.

To reduce weight whilst keeping the external diameter constant, the bar is bored axially to produce a

 cylinder of uniform thickness, what is the maximum diameter of bore possible given that the
maximum allowable stress is 245 M N /m
2
? The load can be assumed to remain constant at
115 kN .

What will be the change in the outside diameter of the bar under the limiting stress quoted above? (
E = 210 GN /m
2
and v = 0.3 )

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

1.11.  A stressed coupling

The coupling shown below is constructed from steel of a rectangular cross-section and is designed to
transmit a tensile force of 50 kN . If the bolt is of 14.5 mm diameter calculate:

F = F 1 = F 2 = 50kN

F 3 = F 4 = 25kN

W1 = 55mm

T1 = T2 = T3 = 7mm

(a) the shear stress in the bolt;

(b) the direct stress in the plate;
(c) the direct stress in the forked end of the coupling.

([Link]
Figure 3. Coupling plate.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

1.12.  Extension of tapered bar

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Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar of the circular cross-section shown below
when it is subjected to an axial tensile load W .

([Link]
Figure 4. Tapered bar.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

1.13.  Error of using mean diameter

The mean diameter is used in calculating the modulus of elasticity, E , of a bar tapered from (D + a)
 diameter to (D − a) diameter. Show that the error involved in calculating E is (
10a

D
2
) % .

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

1.14.  Rectangular tapered bar ASSIGNMENT

A brass plate of uniform thickness 7 mm and length 550 mm , varies in width from 100 mm to

 185 mm

= 82 GP a
and is subjected to a tension load of 5
.
kN . Find the elongation of the bar. E for brass

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

1.15.  Load-extension graph ASSIGNMENT

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During a tensile test on a specimen the following results were obtained:

Load (kN) 15 30 40 50 55 60 65

Extension 0.05 0.094 0.127 0.157 1.778 2.79 3.81

(mm)

Load (kN) 70 75 80 82 80 70

Extension 5.08 7.62 12.7 16.0 19.05 22.9

(mm)

Diameter of gauge length = 19 mm

 Gauge length = 100mm
Diameter at fracture = 16.49 mm
Gauge length at fracture = 121 mm

Plot the complete load extension graph and the straight line portion to an enlarged scale. Hence
determine:

(a) the modulus of elasticity;

(b) the percentage elongation;
(c) the percentage reduction in the area;
(d) the nominal stress at fracture;
(e) the actual stress at fracture;
(f) the tensile strength.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

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2. Compound Bars
A compound or composite bar consists of one or more materials bonded together rigidly such that the straining action
of the external load is shared by the materials such that they satisfy equilibrium condition, Fs + Fc = F total .

These different materials are constrained to deform together such that they satisfy compatibility condition,
ϵ material1 = ϵ material2 .

Modular ratio, m , is given by .

Ematerial1

Ematerial2

F s + F c = F total (11)

 ϵ material1 = ϵ material2 (12)

2.1.  A concrete column with steel reinforcement

A reinforced cement concrete column of dimension 625 mm × 625 mm has eight steel rods of
diameter 30 as reinforcement. Find the stresses in steel and concrete, and the elastic shortening of

mm

the column if E = 200, 000 N /mm

2
for steel and 10, 000 N /mm
2
for concrete. Load on column
= 3000 kN and length = 4 m .

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

2.2.  Encased composite bar

A steel rod of diameter 65 mm and length 1 m is encased by a cast iron (CI) sleeve 9 mm thick and of
internal diameter 65 . The assembly is subjected to a load of 45 . Find the stresses in the two

mm kN

materials and the elongation of the assembly. E for steel = 200 GP a and E for cast iron
= 100 GP a .

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

2.3.  A steel rod and brass bush ASSIGNMENT

A 75 mm diameter compound bar is constructed by shrinking a circular brass bush onto the outside of
a 50 diameter solid steel rod. If the compound bar is then subjected to an axial compressive load of
 160 kN
mm

determine the load carried by the steel rod and the brass bush and the compressive stress set
up in each material. For steel, E = 210 GN /m
2
; for brass, E = 100 GN /m
2
.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

2.4.  Buttwelded stanchion ASSIGNMENT

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A stanchion is formed by buttwelding together four plates of steel to form a square tube of outside cross-
section 200 mm × 200 mm . The constant metal thickness is 10 mm . The inside is then filled with
concrete.

(a) Determine the cross-sectional area of the steel and concrete

 (b) If E for steel is 200 GN /m

stanchion carries a load of 368.8

2
and this value is twenty times that for the concrete, find when the
kN ,

(i) The stress in the concrete

(ii) The stress in the steel
(iii) The amount the stanchion shortens over a length of 2 m .

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

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3. Thermal Stresses and Strains

Whenever there is an increase or decrease in the temperature of a bar, it expands or contracts.

If the bar is allowed to expand or contract freely, no stresses are induced in the bar.

If free expansion or contraction of the bar is prevented, thermal stresses are induced in the bar. The corresponding
strain is called thermal strain.

Consider a bar subjected to an increase in temperature.

L = Original length

t = Temperature increase

α = Coefficient of linear expansion

The increase in length due to the increase in temperature,

ΔL = L × α × t (13)

 If the expansion is prevented,

σ = ϵ × E = αt × E

If the supports yield by an amount of, say, Δ ,

ΔL = Lαt − Δ (14)

Δ
σ = ϵ × E = (αt − )×E
L

S. No. Material Coefficient of linear expansion

o
/ C (α)

1. Steel 11.5 × 10
−6
to 13 × 10
−6

2. Wrought iron, Cast iron 11 × 10

−6
to 12 × 10
−6

3. Aluminium 23 × 10
−6
to 24 × 10
−6

4. Copper, Brass, Bronze 17 × 10

−6
to 18 × 10
−6

3.1.  Stress not to be exceeded

A brass rod 2.5 m long is fixed at both ends. If the thermal stress is not to exceed 77 MPa , calculate

 the temperature through which the rod should be heated. Take the values of α and E as 17 × 10−6 /K
and 90 GP a respectively.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

3.2.  Stress when temperature falls

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Two parallel walls 6.5 m apart are held together by a steel rod 26 mm diameter passing through metal
plates and nuts at each end. The nuts are tightened when the rod is at a temperature of 98o C .
Determine the stress in the rod, when the temperature falls to 60.5o C , if
 (a) the ends do not yield, and
(b) the ends yield by 1.5 mm

Take E and α −6 o
= 200 GP a = 12 × 10 / C

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

3.3.  Thermal stress of a tapered bar

A rigidly fixed circular bar 1.5 m long uniformly tapers from 124 mm diameter at one end to 95 mm

diameter at the other. If the maximum stress in the bar is not to exceed 108 , find the temperature
 through which it can be heated. Take E and α for the bar material as 100
MPa

GP a and 18 × 10−6 /K
respectively.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

3.4.  Stress, strain, and modulus of elasticity ASSIGNMENT

(a) A test piece is cut from a brass bar and subjected to a tensile test. With a load of 6.4 kN the test
piece, of diameter 11.28 mm , extends by 0.04 mm over a gauge length of 50 mm . Determine:

(i) the stress,

(ii)the strain,
(iii) the modulus of elasticity.

 (b) A spacer is turned from the same bar. The spacer has a diameter of 28 mm and a length of
250 mm . both measurements being made at 20 o
C .The temperature of the spaceris then increased to
100
o
C ,the natural expansion being entirely prevented. Taking the coefficientof linear expansion to be
determine:
−6 o
18 × 10 / C

(i) the stress in the spacer,

(ii) the compressive load on the spacer.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

3.5.  Stress when temperature rises ASSIGNMENT

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A steel rod of cross-sectional area 600 mm

2
and a coaxial copper tube of cross-sectional area
1000 mm
2
are firmly attached at their ends to form a compound bar. Determine the stress in the steel
and the copper when the temperature of the bar is raised by 80 o C and an axial tensile force of 60 kN

 is applied.

For steel, E with α

2 −6 o
= 200 GN /m = 11 × 10 / C

For copper, E with α .

2 −6 o
= 100 GN /m = 16.5 × 10 / C

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

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4. Tortion of Circular Shafts

Torsion is the twisting of an object caused by a moment acting about the object’s longitudinal axis. Torque is the moment
that causes the twisting.

Consider a shaft transmitting power.

([Link]
Figure 6. Tortion of a circular shaft.

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TL
The angel of twist, θ = (15)
GJ

Where T is the applied torque, L is the length of the bar, G is the shear modulus, and J is the polar
moment of inertia. The value of G can be obtained using an experiment.

The polar moment of inertia describes a cross-section’s resistance to torsion due to its shape. The
polar moment of inertia for a hollow bar shown below can be calculated as follows.

([Link]
Figure 7. Polar moment.

π
4 4
The polar moment of inertia, J = (r o − r ) (16)
i
2

For a solid circular bar, J

π 4
= (r )
2

4.1.  Twisting solid cylinder

A moment of 1500 Nm is acting on a solid cylinder shaft with diameter 150 mm and length 2 . The
m

shaft is made in steel with modulus of rigidity 79 GP a .

 (a) Calculate the angular deflection of the shaft.

(b) Assuming the shaft is hollow with an inner diameter of 50 mm , calculate the angular deflection of
the shaft.

Click to reveal/hide the solution.

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References
[EJ-Hearn] E.J. Hearn. Mechanics Of Materials: An Introduction to the Mechanics of Elastic and Plastic Deformation of
Solids and Structural Materials Oxford University Press, 2010. ISBN 0080523994, 9780080523996 [Link]
([Link]

[RSKhurmi] RS Khurmi | N Khurmi. A Textbook of Strength of Materials S. Chand Publishing, 2019. ISBN 935283397X,
9789352833979 [Link] ([Link]

[RSubramanian] R. Subramanian. Strength Of Materials Elsevier, 1997. ISBN 0198061102, 9780198061106 [Link]
([Link]

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Dr. Sam says...

Indeed, finding solutions to various solid mechanics problems is relatively easy. Someone just needs to understand a few

fundamental equations and then derive their way to an equation of the solution. The final part of substituting the values

into the equation is a piece of cake.

17 days ago

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New

LUQMAN says...

NICE CONTENT

13 days ago

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New

Mbugua says...

Kindly assist with the answers to the examples

8 days ago

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 View 1 reply

New

Mbugua says...

What if we all get different answers how will we know the correct answer

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10/25/22, 4:19 PM Solid Mechanics: Theory and Examples

 View 1 reply

New

Anonymous says...

Downloadable notes would have been of more help.

6 days ago

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Dr. Sam says...

To download these notes, right-click and click print to save them as a PDF.

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