P GB4 Duh YDEx G8 y OIe KL0
P GB4 Duh YDEx G8 y OIe KL0
P GB4 Duh YDEx G8 y OIe KL0
Simple Stresses
and Strains
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS
☞☞ Introduction ☞☞ R
elationship between modulus of elasticity
☞☞ Stress and modulus of rigidity
☞☞ Types of strain ☞☞ Bars of varying cross-sections
☞☞ Hooke’s law and modulus of elasticity ☞☞ B
ars with a continuously varying cross-
☞☞ Stress–strain relationship section (width vary from b1 to b2)
☞☞ V
olumetric strain of rectangular bar with ☞☞ Thermal stresses in compound bars
triaxial loading
Introduction Stress
Simple Stresses and Strains Stress: When a member is subjected to loads, resisting
forces are developed.
Strength: Resistance of a material to withstand external load.
Each member is in equilibrium under the action of the
Stiffness: Resistance of a material to withstand deformations. applied forces and the internal resisting forces. When a
NOTE section of the member is considered, the intensity of the
A strong material takes more loads at failure. resisting force normal to the sectional plane is called ‘the
A stiff material undergoes less deformation at failure. intensity of normal stress’ or ‘normal stress’.
∆R dR
Assumptions for Calculating Strength of Materials Stress = p = lim
∆A→ 0 ∆A
=
dA
1. Material of a body is solid and continuous (no voids
Where
and no cracks).
R = Resisting force
2. Material is homogeneous and isotropic.
A = Cross-sectional area
Homogeneous: If a material has identical properties
∴ R = ∫ pdA , and P = Applied force
at all points in identical directions, it is called
‘homogeneous’.
Isotropic: If a material has identical elastic properties P = Applied P = Applied
at a point in all directions, it is called ‘isotropic’. force force
NOTE δl
Shear strain f ≅ tan f =
A member free to deform (or) free to move away will not l
develop any stress. δv
Volumetric strain = ev = = ex + ey + ez
v
Units of stress: N/m2 = Pascal
= Sum of strains in the x, y, and z directions of the body.
Types of Stresses
Direct Stresses Hooke’s Law and Modulus
1. Normal or direct stress: The stress in a body due to
a force perpendicular to the surface: of Elasticity
Hooke’s law states that stress is proportional to strain up to
F F F F
the limit of proportionality in the elastic region, i.e., p ∝ e
Tensile force Compressive force \ p = Ee,
2. Shear stress: The tangential force per unit area, i.e., Where, E = Constant of proportionality of the material
the force acting tangentially across the section. E is known as the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus.
From Hooke’s law:
Indirect Stresses
1. Bending stress: The stresses caused in the layers of P
a member due to bending phenomenon in a beam are p PL PL
E= = A = , or δ L =
called ‘bending stresses’. e δ L Aδ L AE
M M L
Stress–Strain Relationship
The stress–strain relationship can be plotted by conducting
a test on a specimen using the Universal Testing Machine
2. Torsional shear stress: Torsion or twisting of a (UTM). An extensometer can be used to measure the length
member results in torsional shear stress. variations.
B
NOTE E
A′
The main aim of Solid Mechanics is to determine stress C
A
resultant comprising of normal and tangential compo-
Stress →
nents only.
Types of Strain
Increase in length
Tensile strain, et = O
Original length
Strain →
Decrease in length
Compressive strain = ec = In the initial portion OA, stress is directly proportional
Original length
to strain. Point A is the limit of proportionality. Slightly
Shear strain is the angular deformation due to the shear
beyond A, when the load is released, strain disappears com-
forces.
pletely and original length is regained.
A δ lA′ B δ lB′ This point (A′) is called ‘the elastic limit’. Point B is the
P
upper yield point and point C is the lower yield point. The
horizontal portion, before point C is called ‘the yield plateau’.
l φ After the point C, strain hardening occurs. Point D rep-
φ resents the ultimate stress which is the maximum stress the
material can resist. Here, the process of necking begins.
D C Point E is the breaking point, the stress at which the speci-
L men fails.
py = pz = 0
Bars with a Continuously
p
ev = x (1 − 2 µ )
E
Varying Cross-section
When
(Width Vary from b1 to b2)
px = py = pz = p,
3p
(1 − 2 µ )
ev = b1 b2
E P P
From the definition of bulk modulus,
p
K= L
ev
PL b a
δL = log 1
tE (b1 − b2 ) b2 P1
Where P1
t = Thickness a
b = Breadth
b
For a cylindrical rod, when the diameter changes from d1
to d2: P2
P1 (P1 − P2)
4 PL
δL= b
π Ed1d2
For equilibrium, -P1 + P2 - P3 + P4 = 0.
dx L
1 L x
3
δL
Weight below the elemental length = wx ⋅ A
Where
P
w = Specific weight
3 A = Area of cross-section
Pdx
Elongation of elemental length =
AE
1 wxA ⋅ dx
=
2 AE
wx
= dx
E
P1 P P Lw wL2
σ1 = ,σ 2 = 2 ,σ 3 = 3 Total elongation due to self weight = ∫ xdx = ⋅
A1 A2 A3 o E 2E
P = P1 + P2 + P3 = s1A1 + s2A2 + s3 A3 2. Solid conical bar:
δ L σ1 σ 2 σ 3
Strain = e = = = =
L E1 E2 E3
d
σ E σ E σ E dx
∴ 1 = 1, 1 = 1, 2 = 2 L
σ 2 E2 σ 3 E3 σ 3 E3
s = Stress x
Bars with varying loads: In this case, loads may vary from
portion to portion. Loads acting on each portion are found Consider an element of length dx and diameter d at a dis-
out. By finding the elongation of each portion, the total tance x from the free end.
elongation is found out. Pdx
Extension of dx =
a b AE
P1
P2 P3 P4 1w 1 π d 2 wx π d2
=
xdx as P = and A =
a b 3E 3 4 4
SOLVED EXAMPLES
L
α tL Example 1
With a 30 m long steel tape and 15 mm × 0.8 mm cross-
No stresses will be developed if the bar is free to expand.
section a length was measured. The measured length was
But, if the free expansion is prevented, then thermal stresses
120 m. During measurement, a force of 100 N more than the
will be developed.
normal was applied. What is the actual length of the line?
Modulus of elasticity = 2 × 105 N/mm2.
δ L = α tL Solution
The stress developed is compressive. Elongation of 30 m tape during measurement was
PL PL
As δ L = δL=
AE AE
PL pl 100 × (30 × 1000)
= α tL, i.e., = lα t = = 1.25 mm
AE E (15 × 0.8)( 2 × 105 )
\p=E∝t
P \ If measured length is 30 m, the actual length is:
where, p = , the thermal stress.
A
1.25
30 + = 30.00125 m
Thermal Stresses in 1000
30.00125
120 × = 120.005 m.
30
l 1 2
Example 2
A steel pipe is to be used to support a load of 150 kN. Pipes
α 2tl having outside diameter of 101.6 mm are available in dif-
α 1tl δ l2 ferent thicknesses of 3 mm, 3.5 mm, 3.65 mm, and 3.85
δ l1 P2 mm. Assuming a factor of safety of 1.8, choose the most
P1 Equilibrium Position
of end economical thickness. (yield stress = 250 N/mm2)
Solution due to its self weight and a load ‘P’ applied at bottom. What
is the extension, if P = weight of the bar.
Permissible stress p
250 P Solution
= = 138.9 N/mm 2 ; p =
1.8 A
P 150
∴A = = × 103 = 1080 mm 2
p 138.9
π 2 L dx
A= ( D − d 2 ) = 1080
4
x
x4
D 2 − d 2 = 1080
π
P
101 ⋅ 62 - d2 = 1375 ⋅ 8
d2 = 10322.56 - 1375.8 = 8946.76 Weight of the bar = wAL
d = 94.59 mm PL
Extension due to P =
AE
D−d wL2
∴t = = 3.505 Extension of the bar due to self weight =
2 2E
\ 3.65 mm thick pipe is sufficient. PL wL2
Total extension = +
AE 2 E
Example 3 when P = wAL,
Find extension of a bar of length L and weight w/unit length 3 wL2
having uniform cross-section area ‘A’ suspended from top, Total extension = .
2 E
Exercises
1. A rigid beam of negligible weight is supported in a hori- (C) the force on the steel rod should be twice the force
zontal position by two rods of steel and copper, 2 m and on copper.
1 m long having values of cross-sectional area 1 cm2 (D) the force P must be applied at the centre of the
and 2 cm2 and E of 200 GPa and 100 GPa respectively. beam.
A load P is applied as shown in the figure below. 2. The principle of superposition is made use of in struc-
tural computations when:
(A) The geometry of the structure changes by a finite
amount during the application of the loads.
(B) The changes in the geometry of the structure dur-
ing the application of the loads is too small and the
2m strains in the structure are directly proportional to
Steel the corresponding stresses.
1m (C) The strains in the structure are not directly propor-
Copper tional to the corresponding stresses, even though
the effect of changes in geometry can be neglected.
(D) None of these
P 3. The maximum value of Poisson’s ratio for an elastic
material is
If the rigid beam is to remain horizontal then (A) 0.25 (B) 0.5
(A) the forces on both sides should be equal. (C) 0.75 (D) 1.0
(B) the forces on copper rod should be twice the force 4. A cantilever beam of tubular section consists of 2 mate-
on steel. rials copper as outer cylinder and steel as inner cylinder.
It is subjected to a temperature rise of 20 C and αcopper 8. The total elongation of the structural element fixed, at
> αsteel. The stresses developed in the tubes will be one end, free at the other end, and of varying cross-
(A) compression in steel and tension in copper. section as shown in the figure when subjected to a force
(B) tension in steel and compression in copper. P at free end is given by
(C) no stress in both.
(D) tension in both the materials.
5. The stress–strain diagram for two materials A and B is A 2A A P
shown below:
L L
L
Material A
(A) PL/AE (B) 3 PL/AE
(C) 2.5 PL/AE (D) 2 PL/AE
Material B
9. A bar of varying square cross-section is loaded sym-
metrically as shown in the figure. Loads shown are
placed on one of the axes of symmetry of cross-section.
Ignoring self weight, the maximum tensile stress any-
where in N/mm2 is
O Strain
The following statements are made based on this
diagram:
I. Material A is more brittle than material B. 100 mm
II. The ultimate strength of material B is more than
that of A. 50 mm
With reference to the above statements, which of the 100 kN 100 kN
following applies?
50 kN
(A) Both the statements are false
(B) Both the statements are true (A) 16.0 (B) 20.0
(C) I is true but II is false (C) 25.0 (D) 30.0
(D) I is false but II is true 10. A steel bar ABC is placed on a smooth horizontal table
6. The shear modulus (G), modulus of elasticity (E) and is fixed at its left end A as shown in the figure. Its right
the Poisson’s ratio (µ) of a material are related as, end C is 1 mm away from another support D. A load
(A) G = E/ [2(1 + µ)] of 65 kN is applied axially at the cross section B and
(B) E = G/ [2(1 + µ)] acts from left to right. AB is 1 cm in diameter and 1.5
(C) G = E/ [2(1 − µ)] m long and BC is 2 cm in diameter and 2.5 m long.
(D) G = E/ [2(µ − 1)] Young’s modulus E = 20 × 106 N/cm2. The stress in
7. The axial movement of top surface of stepped column portion BC will be
as shown in the figure is D
P C
A B
65 kN 20 kN
10 mm
L
1.5 mm
2.5 mm
AE 1 mm
12. In a tensile test, near the elastic limit zone (A) 10 × 104 (B) 15 × 104
(A) tensile stress increases at a faster rate. (C) 76 × 10 4 (D) 130 × 104
(B) tensile stress decreases at a faster rate. 19. The extension of a circular bar tapering uniformly from
(C) tensile stress increases in linear proportion to the diameter d1 to d2 is same as that of a uniform circular
stress. bar of same length, under same load. Diameter of the
(D) tensile stress decreases in linear proportion to the uniform bar is
stress.
(A) d1d2 (B) d 12 − d22
13. If Poisson’s ratio of a material is 0.5, modulus of elas-
ticity of the material is d1 + d2 d − d2
1 (C) (D) 1
(A) times the shear modulus. 2 2
3
(B) 3 times the shear modulus. 20. A brass bar having a cross-sectional area of 1000 mm2
(C) 4 times the shear modulus. is subjected to axial forces as shown in the figure. The
(D) equal to the shear modulus. total change in length of the bar is.
14. A 2 m long mild steel bar of 2000 mm2 cross-sectional Take E = 1.05 × 105 N/mm2.
area is subjected to an axial load of 40 kN. If Young’s A B C D
modulus for the shaft is 2 × 105 N/mm2, extension of
the shaft in mm is 50 kN 8 kN 10 kN
(A) 0.5 mm (B) 1 mm 20 kN
(C) 0.2 mm (D) 2 mm
15. A steel bar of 1 m length is heated from 30°C to 60°C. 0.6 m 1m 1.2 m
Coefficient of linear expansion is 12 × 10-6/°C and
(A) –0.15 mm (B) +0.15 mm
Young’s modulus is 2 × 105 MN/m2. Stress developed
(C) –0.1143 mm (D) +0.1143 mm
in the bar is
(A) 18 N/mm2 (B) zero 21. A solid metal tube with modulus of elasticity E and
(C) 36 N/mm2 (D) 72 N/mm2 Poisson’s ratio m is constrained on all faces. It is heated
so that temperature rises uniformly. If coefficient of
16. Relationship between modulus of elasticity E, modulus
thermal expansion is a, the compressive stress devel-
of rigidity G and bulk modulus K is
oped in the cube due to the heating is
6 KG 9 KG
(A) E = (B) E = Eα∆T Eα∆T
3K + G 3K + G (A) (B)
3K + G 3K + G 2(1 − 2 µ ) (1 − 2 µ )
(C) E = (D) E =
6 KG 9 KG 2 Eα∆T Eα∆T
(C) (D)
17. A bar of 3 m in length 30 mm breadth and 20 mm thick- (1 − 2 µ ) 3(1 − 2 µ )
ness is subjected to a compressive stress of 50 kN/m2.
22. A bar of length L, breadth b and thickness t is subjected
What will be the final volume of the bar if the Poisson’s
to an axial pull of P. If ex is the strain in the direction of
ratio is 0.30 and modulus of rigidity is 90 GN/m2?
pull, volumetric strain produced is (m = Poisson’s ratio)
(A) Will increase by 0.4615 mm3
(A) ex(1 + 2μ) (B) ex(1 - 2μ)
(B) Will decrease by 0.5625 mm3
(C) ex(1 + μ) (D) ex(1 - μ)
(C) Will decrease by 0.4615 mm3
(D) Will increase by 0.5625 mm3 23.
P D D d P
18. Stress–strain behaviour of a material is shown in the
figure. Proof resilience in Nm/m3 is
a b
7. A rod of length L having uniform cross-sectional area 10. A tapered circular rod of diameter varying from
A is subjected to a tensile force P as shown in the 20 mm to 10 mm is connected to another uniform
figure below. If the Young’s modulus of the material circular rod of diameter 10 mm as shown in the fol-
varies linearly from E1 to E2 along the length of the lowing figure. Both bars are made of same material
rod, the normal stress developed at the section-SS is with the modulus of elasticity, E = 2 × 105 MPa.
[GATE, 2013] When subjected to a load P = 30π kN, the section
S at point A is _______ mm. [GATE, 2015]
E1 E2
d1 = 20 mm
P P
L/2 S
2m
P P( E1 − E2 )
(A) (B)
A A( E1 + E2 )
d2 = 10 mm
α ( ∆T ) E
(A) 0 (B) σz
1 − 2ϑ
α ( ∆T ) E α ( ∆T ) E
(C) − (D) (A) 0.00 (B) 0.25
1 − 2ϑ 3(1 − 2ϑ ) (C) 0.50 (D) 1.00
Answer Keys
Exercises
1. B 2. B 3. B 4. B 5. C 6. A 7. C 8. C 9. C 10. A
11. C 12. B 13. B 14. C 15. B 16. B 17. C 18. B 19. A 20. C
21. B 22. B 23. A 24. C 25. A 26. B 27. B 28. B 29. C 30. A
31. C 32. C 33. B 34. A 35. D 36. 33 to 33.75 37. C