x

Q. If u ( x, y ) = 2 2
, find a
x +y
harmonic conjugate v of u.
Soln : Observe the following :
 1
(i ) If f ( z ) = , then u = Re f ( z ).
z
(ii ) f ( z ) is analytic in a domain
D = C - {(0, 0)}.
y
(iii) Im f(z) = v = − 2 2
.
x +y
Conclude that v is a H.C. of u.
Chapter 3: Elementary
Functions

1. Exponential Functions
2. Trigonometric Functions
3. Hyperbolic Functions
4. Logarithmic Functions
5. Complex Exponents
1. Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
2. Inverse Hyperbolic
Functions
 2 3 n
z z z
= 1 + z + + + ...... + + ....
2! 3! n!
z
laurin'series of e

z1
z1 + z2 e z1 − z2
=e , z2
=e
e
 z x + iy
(2) Let f(z) = e = e
x iy
= e .e
x
= e (cosy + i sin y)
≡ u + iv
x x
⇒ u = e cos y, v = e sin y,
 x x
⇒ u x = e cos y, u y = −e sin y
x x
v x = e sin y, v y = e cos y
⇒ u x = v y , u y = −v x
Thus CR equations are satisfied and
clearly u x , u y , v x , v y are continuous
⇒ f ( z ) is differentiable and
f ′(z) = u x + i v x
x x x iy z
= e cos y + i e sin y = e . e = e

⇒
d z
dz
( )
e =e z
 z x iy
(3) e = e . e
iy
e = cos y + i sin y
iy 2 2
⇒e = cos y + sin y = 1
z x x x
∴ e = e = e as e > 0 ∀ x ∈ R
z
⇒ e ≠ 0 for any complex number z.
 iφ
We may write e = e . e = ρ e ,
z x iy

when ρ = e = e > 0 & φ = y

x z

( )
∴ arg e = y + 2nπ ,
z

n = 0, ± 1, ± 2...........
(4) cos 2π = 1 & sin 2π = 0
2πi
Hence e = cos 2π + i sin 2π = 1
πi
e = cos π + i sin π = −1
e −π i
= cos( − π ) + i sin ( − π ) = −1
π i/2
e = cos π / 2 + i sin π / 2 = i

e −π i / 2
= cos ( − π / 2) + i sin ( − π / 2)
=−i
 z + 2πi z 2πi z
5. e = e .e =e
z
⇒ e is periodic with imaginary
period 2πi.
z ± 2 nπi z
∴e = e ∀ n = 0,1,2,3,............
 x
(6) e > 0 ∀ x ∈ℜ
z
But e may be negative if z ∈C
z
Example : Find z such that e = −1
Solution :
z
e = −1
x iy πi
⇒ e . e = 1.e
x
⇒ e = 1, and
y = π + 2nπ , n = 0, ± 1,. ± 2...
⇒ x = 0 & y = π + 2 nπ
Thus, if z = x + iy
= (2n + 1)π i,
n = 0, ± 1,± 2,...

z
then e = − 1
Excercise :
z
(7) e is not analytic anywhere.
Q. Find all values of z such that
2z −1
e = 1+ i

Solution :
2 z −1
e = 1+ i
π
i
2 x −1 2iy
⇒e .e = 2 e 4
 2 x −1
⇒e = 2,

π
2 y = + 2nπ ;
4
n = 0,±1, ± 2,..
 1
( )
π
⇒ x = 1 + ln 2 , y = + nπ
2 8
∴z = x + iy
1
( )π
= 1 + ln 2 + i + nπ ,
2

8 
n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,....
Trigonometric Functions
(1) If x is real , then
ix −ix
e +e
cos x = ,
2
ix −ix
e −e
sin x = .
2i
If z is complex, we define
iz −iz
e +e
cos z = ,
2
iz −iz
e −e
sin z = − − − (1)
2i
iz
⇒ e = cos z + i sin z ,
 sin z cos z
tan z = , cot z = ,
cos z sin z
1 1
sec z = , cos ec z =
cos z sin z
2. Since ez is analytic ∀ z and
linear combination of two
analytic functions is again
analytic, hence it follows that
sin z and cos z are analytic
functions.
3.Using (1) it is easy to prove :
i) sin( −z ) = − sin z

ii) cos(−z ) = cos z

d
iii ) ( sin z ) = cos z
dz
 d
iv ) ( cos z ) = − sin z
dz

d
v) ( tan z ) = sec z
2
dz
vi) sin( z1 ± z2 )
= sin z1 cos z2 ± cos z1 sin z2

vii) cos( z1 ± z2 )
= cos z1. cos z2 sin z1 sin z2
 iz −iz
e +e
( 4) cos z = ,
2
iz −iz
e −e
sin z = .
2i

Put x = 0, then
 i ( iy ) − i ( iy )
e +e
cos( iy ) =
2
−y y
e +e
= = cosh y
2
 1 y −y
sin ( iy ) = − (e − e )
2i
1 y −y
= i (e − e )
2
= i sinh y
cos z = cos( x + iy )
= cos x cos iy − sin x. sin iy
= cos x . cosh y − i sin x . sin hy
sin z = sin ( x + iy )
= sin x. cos iy + cos x. sin iy
= sin x. cosh y + i cos x . sin hy
Hence (EXCERCISE)

2 2 2
sin z = sin x + sinh y
2 2 2
cos z = cos x + sin h y
Hints : (Use)

2 2
cos h x − sinh x = 1
2 2
cos x + sin x = 1
5.Analyticity of tan z & sec z :
sin z 1
tan z = , sec z =
cos z cos z
⇒ tan z & sec z are analytic
everywhere except at the points
where cos z = 0
 cos z = 0
⇒ cos ( x + iy ) =
cos x cos hy − i sin x sin hy = 0
⇒ cos x cos hy = 0, &
sin x sinh y = 0
 cosh y ≠ 0
y −y
e +e 1 y 1 
( cosh y = = e + y 
2 2 e 
2y
= 0 ⇒ e = − 1 < 0)
π
∴ cos x ⇒ 0 ⇒ x = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2...
2
 π
But sin x ≠ 0 for x = ( 2n + 1)
2
∴ sinh y = 0 ⇒ y = 0
 y
e −e−y
2y 
 sinh y = = 0 ⇒ e = 1 ⇒ y = 0
 2 
 π
∴ z = x + iy = ( 2n + 1)
2
∴ tan z & sec z are analytic
every where except at
π
z = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0, ± 1 ± 2,.....
2
(6 Ex.) Analyticity of cot z & cosec z :
cos z 1
cot z = & cos ec z =
sin z sin z
⇒ cot z & cos ec z are analytic
every where except at the points
where sin z = 0
sin z = sin ( x + iy )
= sin x cosh y + i cos x. sinh y = 0
⇒ sin x. cosh y = 0 & cos x sinh y = 0
cosh y ≠ 0 ⇒ sin x = 0
⇒ x = nπ , n = 0,± 1, ± 2,...
But for x = nπ , cos x ≠ 0
∴sinh y = 0 ⇒ y = 0
∴z = x + iy = nπ
Thus cot z & cos ec z are
analytic everywhere except at
the points where
z = nπ , n = 0, ±1, ± 2,...
Hyperbolic Functions :
Definition :
z −z
e −e
sinh z = ,
2
z −z
e +e
cos hz = .
2
 z −z
(1) e &e are analytic
everywhere

⇒ sin h z & cosh z are analytic

everywhere.
 d d e − e 
z −z
(2) [ sin h z ] =  
dz dz  2 
z −z
e +e
= = cos h z
2
d
Similarly [ cos hz ] = sin hz
dz
3. cos z = cos h( i z ) ,
z −z
e +e
cos hz =
2
iz −i z
e +e
⇒ cos h( i z ) = = cos z
2
 4. cos( i z ) = cosh z

cos z = cos h( i z )
( )
⇒ cos( i z ) = cos h i z
2

= cos h( − z ) = cosh z
5. sin z = − i sin h ( i z )

6. sin ( i z ) = − i sin h ( − z )
= i sin h z
7. sinh ( z1 + z2 )
= sin h z1. cos h z2 + cos h z1. sin h z2

8. cos h( z1 + z2 )
= cos h z1. cos h z2 + sin h z1. sin h z2
9. sin h( − z ) = − sin h z
cos h ( − z ) = cos h z
2 2
cos h z − sin h z = 1
(10) sin h z
= sin hx . cos y + i cos hx . sin y
Soln :
sin h z = sin h( x + iy )
= sin hx cos h( i y )
+ cos h x. sin h( i y )
= sin hx. cos y
+ i cos hx . sin y
Excercise :
2 2 2
sin h z = sin h x + sin y
Similarly
a) cosh z = cos hx cos y
+ i sin hx. sin y

2 2 2
b) cosh z = sin h x + cos y
(11) Analyticity of tan hz & sec h z :
sinh z
tan h z = ,
cos hz
1
sec hz = .
cos hz
⇒ tanh z & sec hz are analytic
everywhere except at the
points where
cos h z = 0.
Now cosh z = 0
⇒ cos ( i z ) = cos( ix − y ) = 0
⇒ cos ( i x ). cos ( y ) + sin ( ix ). sin ( y )
⇒ cosh x . cos y + i sinh x. sin y = 0

⇒ cosh x. cos y = 0,
sinh x. sin y = 0.
 cos h x ≠ 0 ⇒ cos y = 0
π
⇒ y = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,...
2
π
For y = ( 2n + 1) , sin y ≠ 0
2
∴sin h x = 0 ⇒ x = 0
∴ z = x + iy
iπ
= ( 2n + 1) ,
2
n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ...
⇒ tan hz & sec hz are
analytic everywhere
except at
iπ
z = ( 2n + 1) , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,....
2
Exercise:
coth z and cosech z are analytic
everywhere except at z = nπi,

n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,.....
Q. Show that
(i ) sin h ( Im z ) ≤ sin z ≤ cos h( Im z )
(ii ) sin h( Im z ) ≤ cos z ≤ cos( Im z )

Sol : (1) sin z = sin ( x + iy )

= sin x. cos( iy ) + cos x. sin ( iy )
= sin x. cosh y + i cos x. sin h y
 2 2 2
⇒ sin z = sin x. cos h y
2 2
+ cos x. sin h y
2
(
= sin x 1 + sin h y 2
)
( 2
+ 1 − sin x . sin h y ) 2

2 2
= sin x + sin h y
 2 2 2 2
⇒ sin h y ≤ sin z = sin x + sin h y
2
≤ 1 + sinh y
2
= cosh y
⇒ sin hy ≤ sin z ≤ cosh y
(ii ) cos z = cos( x + iy )
= cos x. cos( iy ) − sin x. sin ( iy )
= cos x. cosh y − i sin x. sin h y
 2 2 2
⇒ cos z = cos x. cos h y
2 2
+ sin x. sin h y
2
(
= cos x 1 + sin h y 2
)
( 2
)
+ 1 − cos x . sin h y 2

2 2
= cos x + sin h y
 2 2 2 2
⇒ sin h y ≤ cos z = cos x + sin h y
2
≤ 1 + sin h y
2
= cosh y
⇒ sin h y ≤ cos z ≤ cos hy
The Logarithmic Function :

The natural logarithm of z = x + iy

is denoted by log z,
i.e. w = log z,
and log z is defined for z ≠ 0
by the relation
w
e = z ..............(i )
w
i.e. if e = z , then we write
w = log z
Let w = u + iv,
z = x + iy = r cos Θ + i r sin Θ
iΘ
= r e , where
− π < Θ ≤ π , Θ = Arg z
 u + iv iΘ
Then (i ) ⇒ e =re
iΘ
⇒e . e = r e
u iv

⇒e = r = z,
u

v = Θ + 2 nπ ,
n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,......
⇒ u = ln r = ln z ,
v = Θ + 2nπ
∴ w = log z = u + i v
= ln z + i( Θ + 2nπ )
Since Arg z = Θ, − π < Θ ≤ π
and arg z = Θ + 2nπ ,
n is any integer
∴log z = ln z + i arg z , z≠0
When n = 0, then arg z = Arg z
When n = 0, then the value of log z
is called the principal value of log z
and is denoted by Log z, i.e.
Log z = ln z + i Arg z , z ≠ 0.
∴ log z = ln z + i arg z
= ln z + i( Θ + 2nπ )
= ( ln z + iΘ ) + i 2nπ
⇒ log z = Log z + i 2nπ , n = 0, ± 1,± 2,...
Sec 31 :
If z1 & z 2 be any two non − zero
complex numbers, then
(1) log( z1 z 2 ) = log z1 + log z 2
 z1 
(2) log   = log z1 − log z 2
 z2 
But
Log ( z1 z 2 ) ≠ Log z1 + Log z 2
 z1 
Log   ≠ Log z1 − Log z 2
z
 2
n
Log z ≠ n Log z
Ex (1) Let z1 = −1, z 2 = −1

z1=-1+i0

z1 z1 z2
∴Log ( z1 ) = ln z1 + i Arg z1
⇒ Log ( − 1) = ln (1) + i Arg z1
= 0 + iπ
∴Log ( z1 ) + Log ( z 2 ) = 2π i
But z1 z2 = 1
⇒ Log ( z1 z2 ) = ln z1 z2 + i Arg ( z1 z2 )
= 0 + i. 0 = 0
Thus
Log ( z1 z2 ) ≠ Log z1 + Log z2
Q.3(b) Log ( − 1 + i ) ≠ 2 Log ( − 1 + i )
2

L.H.S. = Log ( − 1 + i )
2

[ 2
= Log 1 + i − 2 i ]
= Log ( − 2 i )
= ln − 2i + iArg ( − 2i )
 π
= ln 2 + i − 
 2
π
= ln 2 − i
2
RHS = 2 Log ( −1 + i )
= 2[ln −1 + i + i Arg ( −1 + i ) ]
 3π 
= 2 ln 2 + i 
 4 
 1 3π
= 2[ ln 2 + i ]
2 4
3π
= ln 2 + i
2
∴LHS ≠ RHS
Q.4 Show that
( a ) log(i 2
) ≠ 2 log i, when
log z = ln r + i θ ,
r = z > 0,
3π 11π
<θ <
4 4
 ( )
2
(b) log i = 2 log i, when

log z = ln r + iθ ,
π 9π
r = z > 0, < θ <
4 4
Soln (a) :
LHS = log(i ) = log( −1)
2

= ln −1 + i θ ,
= 0 +π i = π i
NOTE :
3π / 4 < θ < 11π 4 ,
θ = arg( − 1) = π + 2nπ
and hence n = 0.
We have
log i = ln i + i arg i
π 
= ln 1 + i + 2nπ , where
2 
n is an integer
 1
= iπ  2n + 
 2
 3π  1 11π
< θ =  2n + π <
4  2 4
⇒ n = 1 & hence
5π
θ=
2
 11 π/4

3 π /4
 5π
∴ RHS = 2 log i = 2. i = 5π i
2
LHS =/ RHS
Soln(b) :
π 9π
< θ = ( 2n + 1)π <
4 4 9π/4
⇒n=0
π/4
⇒ LHS = πi
But when
π  1 9π
< θ =  2n + π <
4  2 4
π
⇒ n = 0 & hence θ =
2
 π
RHS = 2 log i = 2 i = πi
2
∴LHS = RHS
( ) = 2 log i
i.e. log i 2

π 9π
if <Θ<
4 4
Sec 30 : Derivatives of log z and Log z
Remark 1 :
Since log z = ln z + i arg z
= ln z + i ( Θ + 2nπ ) ,
n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,.....
⇒ log z is a multivalued function.
Remark 2 :
Since Log z = ln z + i Θ ,
Θ = Arg z
⇒ Log z is a single - valued
function.
Re mark 3 :
1
(
2
ln z = ln x + y
2
2
)
is continuous everywhere
except at ( 0,0).
Remark 4 : Let α be any real number,
and consider
f ( z ) = log z = ln z + iθ
= ln r + iθ ,
( r > 0,α < θ < α + 2π )
⇒ u ( r ,θ ) = ln r , v( r ,θ ) = θ
 y

α
x
Then log z is single - valued and
continuous in the domain
D = {z : z > 0, α < θ < α + 2π }
Remark 5: The function log z
is NOT continuous on the line
θ =α as arg z is NOT
continuous on the line θ = α .
For if z is a point on the ray θ=α
then there are points arbitrary
close to z at which the values of
v are nearer to α, and also there
are points such that the values
of v are nearer to α+2π.

⇒ lim arg z does not exist.

z →α
Remark 6 :
(i) log z = ln r + i θ is analytic
in domain
D1 = {z : z = r > 0, α < θ = arg z < α + 2π }
(ii ) Log z = ln r + i Θ is analytic in the
domain
D 2 = {z : z = r > 0, − π < Θ = Arg z < π }
As, u( r ,θ ) = ln r , v ( r ,θ ) = θ
1
⇒ ur = , uθ = 0
r
v r = 0, vθ = 1
⇒ CR - equations in polar form
r u r = vθ , uθ = −r vr
are satisfied and first - order
partial derivatives are
continuous.
 d
⇒ f ′( z ) = ( log z ) = −e ( ur + i vr )
− iθ
dz
1 1
= iθ = in D1
re z
In particular, when α = −π
d 1
( Log z ) = in D2 .
dz z
Remark : 7
Log z is analytic on the whole
complex plane except at ( 0,0 )
and on the ray θ = -π , i.e. on
negative real axis.
i.e. singularties of Log z are
given by
Re z ≤ 0, Im z = 0.
Definition :
A branch of a multiple - valued
function f ( z ) defined on a set S
is any single valued function F(z)
that is analytic in some domain D ⊆ S
such that for all z ∈ D, F( z ) is
one of the values of f ( z ).
Ex. For each fixed α ,
log z = ln z + i θ ,
( z > 0,α < θ < α + 2π )
is a branch of
log z = ln z + i arg z
Log z = ln z + i Θ ,
( z > 0, − π < Θ < π )
is called the principal branch.
Q.9(a) p. 94
Show that the function
Log ( z − i )
is analytic everywhere except
on the half line y = 1 ( x ≤ 0 ).
Solution :
We have f ( z ) = Log ( z − i )
singularity of f ( z )
is given by
Re ( z − i ) ≤ 0 & Im( z − i ) = 0
⇒ Re( x + i ( y − 1) ) ≤ 0 &
Im( x + i ( y − 1) ) = 0 y=1
⇒ x ≤ 0 & y =1
Q 9 ( b ) Show that the function
Log ( z + 4 )
f ( z) = 2
z +i
is analytic everywhere except at
the points ± (1 - i ) / 2
and on the portion x ≤ − 4 of
the real axis.
Solution :
Singularities of f ( z ) are given by
Re( z + 4 ) ≤ 0, Im( z + 4 ) = 0 &
2
z +i = 0
2
⇒ x + 4 ≤ 0, y = 0 & z = −i
  −π 
 + 2 nπ  i
2  2 
Now z = − i = e ,
n = 0, 1
 −π i
 + 2 nπ 
 2 2
⇒z =e
 −π 
 + nπ  i
 4 
⇒z =e , n = 0,1
When n = 0, then
−π
i π π
z= e 4 = cos − i sin
4 4
1
= (1 − i )
2
When n = 1, then
 π
 π − i
 4
z=e
 3π   3π 
= cos  + i sin  
 4   4 
1
=− (1 − i )
2
Hence singularities of f ( z ) are
1
± (1 − i ) , x ≤ −4.
2
Sec 32 : Complex Exponents
(1) Let z ≠ 0 be a complex no.,
and c is any complex no.
c
Then z is defined as
c c log z
z =e
If log z is replaced by
Log z, then
c c Logz
z =e
is called the principal value
c
of z .
Q.2( a ) Show that i is real i

and find its principal value.

i i log i
Solution : i = e
log( i ) = ln i + i arg ( i )
π   1
= 0 + i + 2nπ  =  2n + π i
2   2
  1
−  2 n + π
i  2
∴ i =e which is real
i
Principal value of i is
π
−
e 2 (n = 0).
EX. ( b ) Find P.V. of i . -i

Solution :
 1
−i  2 n + πi
−i −i log i  2
i =e =e
 1
 2 n + π
 2
=e , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,..
−i π 2
Principal value of i = e
(c) Write log(Log i) in terms of a + ib
π
We have Log i = i (WHY ??)
2
π  π π 
⇒ log ( Log i ) = log i  = ln i + i arg i 
2  2 2 
π 
= ln ( π 2 ) + i + 2nπ 
2 
Principal value of
π
Log ( Log i ) = ln ( π 2 ) + i
2
Q. Find the principal value of (1 - i ) 1+i

Solution : (1 − i ) 1+i
=e ( 1+i ) log ( 1−i )

Now log (1 - i ) = ln 1 − i + i arg (1 − i )

 π 
= ln 2 + i − + 2nπ 
 4 
1
-i -π / 4
∴ (1 - i ) 1+i
= e log ( 1−i ) + i log ( 1−i )

log ( 1−i ) i log ( 1−i )

=e .e
 1
i ln 2 −  2 n − π
= (1 − i ) . e  4
  1
− 2 n − π
= (1 - i ) e .e i ln 2  4

Principal value of
π
(1 - i ) 1+i
= (1 − i ) e i ln 2
e 4