Elementary Functions

Here we consider various elementary functions studied in the calculus of real variables and
define corresponding functions of a complex variable.
I. The Exponential function
The exponential function is defined by
1. f ( z ) = e z = e x + iy = e x eiy - e x ( cos y + i sin y ) - e x cos y + ie x sin y
Examples:
1. Determine whether or not f ( z ) = e z is analytic.
Solution:
f ( z ) = e z = e x +iy = e x ( cos y + i sin y )
w = u + iv = e x cos y + ie x sin y
u = e x cos y v = e x sin y
¶u ¶v
= e x cos y = e x cos y
¶x ¶x
¶u ¶v
= -e x sin y = e x sin y
¶y ¶x
¶u ¶v ¶u -¶v
\ = and =
¶x ¶y ¶y ¶x
Hence f ( z ) = e is analytic.
z

2. If a is real and positive, we define a z = e z ln a

Proof
L.H.S
Let y = a z ; ln y = ln a z ; ln y = z ln a ; log e y = z log e a ; y = e z ln a = R.H .S
3. e z = e x
Proof
e z = e x +iy = e x ( cos y + i sin y ) = e x cos y + ie x sin y
e z = e x cos y + ie x sin y
= e x ( cos y + i sin y )
= e x cos y + i sin y

= ex cos2 y + sin 2 y
= ex 1
ez = ex
Argument of e z is given by:
f ( z ) = e z = e x cos y + ie x sin y
sin y
( )
arg e z = tan -1
cos y
= tan -1 tan y = y

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4. f ( z ) = e z = e a ( cos y + i sin y )
Applying natural log on both sides, ln e z = ln e x ( cos y + i sin y )
z = ln e x eiy
z = ln e x + ln eiy
z = ln e x + iy
But e x = mod e z and y = arg e z
(
\ z = ln mod e z + i arg e z) ( )
z + 2p i
5. e =e z

Proof
e ( z + 2p i ) = e z e 2p i
= e z ( cos 2p + i cos 2p )
= e z (1 + oi )
= ez
i.e the exponential function is periodic with a pure imaginary period of 2p i
6. e z1 z2 = e z1 + z2
Prove
e z1 z2 = e x1 + iy1 e x2 + iy2
= e x1 eiy1 e x2 eiy2
= e x1 ( cos y1 + i sin y1 ) e x2 ( cos y2 + i sin y2 )
= e x1 e x2 ( cos y1 + i sin y1 )( cos y2 + i sin y2 )
= e x1 e x2 ( cos y1 cos y2 + i cos y1 sin y2 + i sin y1 cos y2 - sin y1 sin y2 )
= e x1 x2 [cos y1 cos y2 - sin y1 sin y2 + i (cos y1 sin y2 + sin y1 cos y2 )
= e x1 x2 [cos ( y1 + y2 ) + i sin ( y1 + y2 )
= e x1 e x2 ei( y1 + y2 ) = e x1 e x2 eiy1 eiy2
= e x1 + iy1 + x2 +iy2 = e z1 + z2
Exercise 8
e z1
Prove that z2 = e z1 - z2
e

1
7. e0 = 1 and z
= e- z
e
8. ( e z ) = enz
n

9. elog z = z
Exercise 9
1. Show that e( 2+3p i ) = -e z
2 +p i
2. Show that e 4 = e
(1 + i )
2

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3. Determine whether or not f ( z ) = 2 z 2 - 3 - ze z + e - z is analytic.
Example 21
Find all values of z such that e z = -2 .
Solution:
e z = -2 = -2 + oi
( -2 )
2
e z = -2 + oi = + o2 = 2

( )
arg e z = tan -1
0
-2
= 1800

\ e = 2 ( cos1800 + i sin180 0 )
z

e z = 2e180e = 2ep i
ln e z = ln ( 2ep i )
ln e z = ln 2 + ln (p i + 2p ki )
(since e z + 2p i = e z ) , k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K
\ z = ln 2 + ln (p i + 2p ki )
Example 22:
Find all the values of z such that e 2 z -1 = 1
e 2 z -1 = 1 + oi
e 2 z -1 = 12 + 02 = 1

( )
arg e 2 z -1 = tan -1
0
1
= tan -1 o = o0
2 z -1
\e = 1cos 0 + i sin o0
0

= eio + 2p ki (since e z = e z + 2p i ) where k = o, ± 1, ± 2,K

= e2p ki
Equating the powers of e, we have
2 z - 1 = 2p ki
2 z = 1 + 2p ki
1
z = + p ki, k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K
2
Example 24:
Show that the function e z is not analytic anywhere.
Solution:
e z = e x -iy = e x eiy = e x ( cos ( - y ) + sin ( - y ) )
= e x ( cos y - i sin y )
= e x cos y - e x i sin y
u + iv = e x cos y - e x i sin y
Þ u = e x cos y , v = -e x sin y

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 du dv
= e x cos y; = -e x cos y
dx dy
du dv
\ ¹
dx dy
du dv
= -e x sin y = -e x sin y
dy dx
du dv
¹-
dy dx
Þ e z is not analytic.
Exercise 10
1. Find all the values of z such that e z = 1 + 3i .
2. If z = e w , (a)Show that u = ln r and v = 0 + 2p k , k = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K
(b)Determine the values of ln (1 - i ) .What is the principle value?

II. Trigonometric functions

From the formulas
eix = cos x + i sin x and e -ix = cos x - i sin x , we have
eix + e - ix = cos x + i sin x + cos x - i sin x
eix + e- ix = 2cos x
eix + e- ix
\ cos x =
2
Similarly,
eix - e - ix = cos x + i sin x - cos x + i sin x
eix - e - ix = 2i sin x
eix - e -ix
\ sin x =
2i
The sine and cosine functions of a complex variable can be defined in a similar manner by the
eid - e - iz eid + e -iz
equations sin z = and cos z = .
2i 2
The sine and cosine functions are analytic since they are linear combinations of the analytic
functions eiz and e -iz .
sin z eiz - e- iz eiz + e - iz
Similarly, tan z = = /
cos z 2i 2
- iz
e -e
iz
2
= ´ iz -iz
2i e +e
- iz
e -e
iz
=
i ( eiz + e - iz )

cot z =
1 (
i eiz + e -iz
= iz - iz
)
tan z e -e

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 1 2
sec z = = iz - iz
cos z e + e
1 2i
cos ecz = = iz - iz
sin z e - e
Example 25:
Let z = x + iy . Show that sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
Solution:
eiz - e -iz ei ( x +iy ) - e -i ( x + iy )
sin z = =
2i 2i
e - e- ix + y
ix - y
=
2i
e e - e -ix e y
ix - y
=
2i

=
( cos x + i sin x ) e - i ( cos x - i sin x ) e y
-y

2i

=
( cos x + i sin x ) e -y
i ( cos x - i sin x ) e y
2i 2i
-i ( cos x + i sin x ) e -y
i ( cos x - i sin x ) e y
= +
2 2
1 1 i
(since = ´ -i = = -i )
i ix - 1 - -1
=
( -i cos x ) e- y + (sin x ) e- y - ( i cos x ) e y + sin x e y
2 2 2 2
Rearranging the terms, we have
i cos x i cos x - y sin x sin x
= -e - y + ey +e + ey
2 2 2 2

= i cos x
( e - e ) + sin x ( e + e )
y -y -y y

2 2
-y
e -e
y
e y + e- y
But = sinh y while = cosh y .
2 2
\ sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y
Exercise 11
1. Let z be any non-zero complex number. Show that if z = reiq then (a) z = re- iq
(b) e(log r +iq ) = z
2. Let z=x+iy . Show that cos z = cos x cosh y - i sin x sinh y .

III.Inverse trigonometric functions

If z = sin w , then w = sin -1 z is called the inverse of sin z . Others are cos -1 z , tan -1 z , cot -1 z e.t.c.
The inverse functions can be expressed in terms of natural logarithms as follows.

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 1
(
1. sin -1 z = ln iz + 1 - z 2
i
)
Proof:
Let sin -1 z = w
Þ sin w = z
eiw - e -iw
Þ =z
2i
Þ eiw - e - iw = 2iz
1
Þ eiw - iw = 2iz
e
e -1
2 iw
Þ = 2iz
eiw
Þ e 2iw - 1 = eiw ( 2iz )
e 2iw - 2izeiw - 1 = 0
( e ) - ( 2iz ) e
2
iw iw
-1 = 0
Let eiw = p
p 2 - 2izp - 1 = 0
2iz ± -4 z 2 - 4 ( -1)( -1)
p=
2
2iz ± 4 - 4 z 2
=
2
2iz ± 2 1 - z 2
=
2
\ eiw = iz ± 1 - z 2 ; taking the natural log of both sides, we have
(
ln eiw = ln iz ± 1 - z 2 )
(
iw ln e = ln iz + 1 - z 2 ; but log e e = 1)
(
\ iw = ln iz + 1 - z 2 )
w=
1
i
(
ln iz + 1 - z 2 )
1
(
\ sin -1 z = ln iz + 1 - z 2
i
)
1 æ 1 + iz ö
2. tan -1 z = ln ç ÷
2i è 1 - iz ø
Let tan w = z
sin w eiw - e- iw eiw + e - w
= /
cos w 2i 2

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 eiw - e- iw
= =z
(
i eiw + e - iw )
eiw - e -iw = zi ( e iw
+ e -iw )
eiw - e -iw = zieiw + zie -iw
1
eiw - iw = zieiw + zie - iw
e
e -1
2 iw
= zieiw + zie - iw
eiw
e 2iw - 1 = eiw ( zieiw + zie - iw )
e 2iw - 1 = ize 2iw + zi
( e ) - 1 = iz ( e ) + zi
2 2
iw iw

( e ) - iz ( e ) = 1 + zi
2 2
iw iw

( e ) [i - iz ) = 1 + zi
2
iw

1 + zi
e 2iw =
1 - zi
æ 1 + iz ö
ln e 2iw = ln ç ÷
è 1 - iz ø
æ 1 + iz ö
2iw = ln ç ÷
è 1 - iz ø
1 æ 1 + iz ö -1
w = ln ç ÷ = tan z
2i è 1 - iz ø
Exercise 12
1
1.Show that cos-1 ( z ) = ln z + z 2 - 1 .
i
( )
-1 1 æ 1+ z2 -1 ö
2. cos ec z = ln ç ÷ . Prove.
i çè z ÷
ø
1 æ 1+ 1- z2 ö
3. sec -1 z = ln ç ÷ . Prove.
i çè z ÷
ø
1 æ z +i ö
4. Show that cot -1 z = ln ç ÷.
2i è z - i ø
Example 26:
Find all the roots of cos z = 2 .
Solution:
cos-1 2 = z
Þ z = cos-1 2 + 2p ik

7
 1
( 1
) ( )
But cos-1 z = ln z + z 2 - 1 = ln 2 + 3 = -i ln 2 + 3
i i
( )
( )
\ z = -i ln 2 + 3 + 2p ik , k = 0,1, 2,K

(
= 2p ik - i ln 2 + 3 )
= 2p ik + i ln ( 2 + 3 ) , k = 0,1, 2,K
Since 3 = ±
Exercise 13
1. Find all the roots of the equation sin z = cosh 4 by equating the real parts and the imaginary
parts of sin z and cosh 4 .
IV.Hyperbolic functions
The hyperbolic sine and the hyperbolic cosine of complex variables are derived as they are with
real variable i.e
e z - e- z e z + e- z
sin Lz = , cosh = ,
2 2
sinh z e z - e z
tanh z = =
cosh z e z + e - z
Since e z and e - z are entire, it follows that the hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine functions
are entire.
d d
( sinh z ) = cosh z ( tan z ) = sec h2 z
dz dz
d d
( cosh z ) = sinh z ( coth z ) = - cos ech2 z
dz dz
d d
( sech z ) = - sech z tanh z ( cos ec h z ) = - cos echz cot z
dz dz
Identities
cosh 2 z - sinh 2 = 1
sinh ( z1 + z2 ) = cosh z1 sinh z2 + sinh z1 sinh z2
cosh ( z1 + z2 ) = cosh z1 cosh z2 + sinh z1 sinh z2
sinh ( - z ) = - sinh z
cosh ( - z ) = cosh z
Also,
sinh ( iz ) = i sin z
cosh ( iz ) = cos z
sin ( iz ) = i sinh z
cos ( iz ) = cosh z
The real and imaginary parts of the hyperbolic sine and cosine function are
sinh z = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y

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 e z - e- z
=
2
e - e-( x +iy )
x + iy
=
2
eex iy
e - x e - iy
= -
2 2
= ex
( cos y + i sin y ) - x ( cos y - i sin y )
-e
2 2
e cos y e cos y æ e sin y e- x sin y ù
x -x x
= - + iç + ú
ç 2
2 2 è 2 û
cos y x - x sin y x - x
= éë e - e ùû + i é e + e ùû
2 2 ë
æ e x - e- x ö é e x + e- x ù
= cos y ç ÷ + i sin y ê ú
è 2 ø ë 2 û
= cos y sinh x + i sin y cosh x
Exercise 14
1.Prove that cosh x = cosh x cos y + i sin y sinh x .
V.Logarithmic functions
Let log r denote the natural logarithm of a positive real number r, as defined in calculus of real
variables. We define the logarithmic function in complex analysis by the equation
log z = log r + iq …(1) where r = z and q = arg z .
It is a multiple-valued function which is defined for all non-zero complex numbers z.
Recall:
f ( z ) = e z Þ z = log r + iq
Since z is periodic,
z = log r + i (q + 2p k ) , k = 0,1, 2,K
\ log z = log r + i (q + 2p k ) , k = 0,1, 2,K (2)
The principle value of log z is the value obtained from equation (2) where k=0.
i.e log z = log r + iq or ln z = ln r + iq
Properties of logarithms
1. elog z = z , z ¹ 0
Proof:
log ( reiq )
elog z = e ( ) = e
log x + iy

= elog r + iq
= elog r eiq
= reiq = z
2. log elog z = log e z + i arg e z
3. log ( z1 + z2 ) = log z1 + log z2

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 æz ö
4. log ç 1 ÷ = log z1 - log z 2
è z2 ø
Complex exponents
z c is a complex exponent where c is any number.
c iq (
c log r + log eiq )
z c = e log z (since a z = e z log a ) = e c log z = ec log re =e
=e (
c( log r + iq ) c( log r + iq + 2p ki ) c log r + i (q + 2p k ) )
=e =e
i i log ( re ( iq ) )
e.g z i = elog z = ei log z = e
= ei (log r +iq )
=e(
i log r + i (q + 2p k ) )

= ei log r e (
i i (q + 2 k ) )

= ei log r e-(q + 2p k )
= e-(q + 2p k )ei log r
=e (
- q + 2p k )
éëcos ln r + i sin ( ln r ) ùû , k = 0,1, 2,K
Example 27:
Find the principle value of i i .
Solution:
i
i i = eln i = ei ln i
i ln i ( cos 900 + i sin 900 )
=e
æ ö
ç since i = 0 + i ÷
çr = i =1 ÷
ç ÷
ç q = tan -1 1 = 900 ÷
è 0 ø
i 90 + 2 p ki
= ei ln e
=e
(
i ln e (
i 90+ 2 p k )
)
=e [
i i 90 + 2p k ]

p + 2p k p
=e 2 , k = 0,1, 2,K
The principle value is obtained when k=0,1,2,…
-p
ii = e 2
Example 28:
Determine all the principle values of (1 + i )
i

Solution:
(1 + i ) = eln(1+i )
i
i

= ei ln(1+i )
But 1 + i = 12 + 12 = 2

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 arg (1 + i ) = tan -1 = p
1
1 4
æ i( p + 2 p k ) ö
i ln ç 2e 4 ÷
\ (1 + i ) = e
i è ø

é i( p + 2 p k ) ù
i êln 2 + ln e 4 ú
=e ë û

é (p + 2 p k ) ù
i êln 2 + i 4 ú
=e ë û

=e
i ln 2 - p + 2p k
4 ( )

= ei ln 2 e
(
- p + 2p k
4 ) , k = 0,1, 2,K
( ) écos ln 2 + i sin ln 2 ù
=e
- p + 2p k
4
ë ( ) ( )û
Example 29:
Find 1 2
Solution:
2
1 2
= eln1 = e 2 ln1

(
2 ln ieiq +2 p ki )
=e
(since z = 1 + oi Þ r = z = 1, arg z = tan -1 0 = 0 )
z ln1e 2 p ki
=e
(
2 ln1+ ln e 2p ki )
=e
=e ( )
2 2p ki

(since ln1 = 0 and ln e 2p ki = 2p ki

i ( 2 2p k )
=e
(
= cos 2 2p k + i sin 2 2p k ) ( )
Example 30:
Find the principle value of ( -1)
i

Solution:
( -1) = eln( -1) = ei ln -1
i
i

0
But z = -1 Þ z = -1 + oi Þ z = 1 and arg z = tan -1 = 2700
-1
\ ( -1) = e
i (
i ln 1e 270 i )
(
i ln1+ ln e 270 i + 2p ki ) i é ln1+ ( 270 + 2p k )i ùû i é 0 + ( 270 + 2p k )i ùû
=e =eë =eë
= ei ( 270+ 2p k ) = e-( 270+ 2p k )
When k = 0, ( -1) = e -270
i

Exercise 15
1.Find the principle value of ( i )
-2i

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