PREPARED BY: NOORHANANI BT MAMAT @ MUHAMMAD 2012599003 EDU 702 (RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION)

POPULATION
Definition: Refers to all members of a particular group.

The group of interest to the researcher

The group to which the results will be applied (Fraenkel, Wallen, Hyun, 1990)

The larger group from which individuals are selected to

participate in a study
The total number of persons inhabiting a country, city, or

any district or area. (Dictionary.com, 2012)

SAMPLE
Any part of a population of individuals on whom information is

obtained
A group on which the population is obtained

(Fraenkel, Wallen, Hyun, 1990)

The representatives selected for a study whose characteristics

exemplify the larger group from which they were selected.

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Example:i)

A researcher is interested in studying the effect of the implementation of LINUS 2.0 in Primary School in

Terengganu

Population All the English teachers of Primary school in Terengganu (370 )

Sample -

20 selected English teacher from each

district. (8 x 20=160)

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Note:
In the same group , they can be a sample and a

population in different context.

Example,

All the English teacher in Terengganu constitute the population of English teacher in Terengganu , yet they also constitute a sample of all English teacher in Malaysia.

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Sometimes the population from which the sample is drawn may

not be the same as the population about which we actually want

information.
Large gap but not overlap Sometimes they may be entirely separate Example:

Study rats in order to get a better understanding of human health, Study records from people born in 2008 in order to make predictions about people born in 2009.

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

POPULATION
INFERENCE

SAMPLE

SAMPLING
The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in

such a way that the individuals represent the larger group from which they were selected (Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD, )

The process of selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from

a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen (William M.K Trochim, 2006)

OBJECTIVES OF SAMPLING
To make inferences about the larger population

from the smaller sample.

To gather data about the population in order to

make an inference that can be generalized to the

population

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
Saves money , time and energy

Provides information that is almost as accurate as that obtained from a

complete census
Possible to obtain more detailed information from each unit of the sample The only means available for obtaining the needed information when the

population appears to be infinite or is inaccessible

Has much smaller non-response, much easier. Essential to obtaining the data when the measurement process physically

damages or destroys the sampling unit under investigation.

Extensively used to obtain some of the census information.

Provides a valid measure of reliability for the sample estimates

DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
Mostly can be biased and in some cases can

choose

people/units

inappropriate

for

the

circumstances

MISTAKES TO BE CONSCIOUS OF
Threaten to render a studys findings invalid
Sampling Error Sampling Bias

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

SAMPLING ERROR
The chance and random variation in variables that

occurs when any sample is selected from the population

To avoid sampling error, a census of the entire population

must be taken
To control for sampling error, researchers use various

sampling methods (Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

SAMPLING BIAS
Nonrandom differences, generally the fault of the

researcher
Cause the sample is over-represent individuals or

groups within the population

Lead to invalid findings

Sources of sampling bias include the use of volunteers

and available groups (Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

STEPS IN SAMPLING
1. Defining the population (N)
2. Determine sample size (n) 3. Control for bias and error 4. Select the sample

DEFINE THE POPULATION (N)

Identify the group of interest and its characteristics to

which the findings of the study will be generalized

Choose the target population
The ideal selection- Actual population

The accessible or available population must be used

The realistic selection

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

TARGET VERSUS ACCESSIBLE

POPULATIONS
TARGET
1. Rarely available to generalize 2. Researchers ideal choice

ACCESSIBLE
1. Able to generalize 2. Researchers realistic choice

3. Example: All Year 1 and Year 2 pupils in Terengganu

3. Example: All Year 1 and Year 2 in SK Alor Peroi, Besut, Terengganu.

Remember
Narrow population- Save time, effort and money
Generalizability is limited

The population and sample must be specific enough

provide readers a clear understanding of the applicability of our study

to their particular situation and their understanding of that same population.

Common weaknesses of published research report fail to define in detail

Actual sample may be different from original Subject refuse to participate, drop out, data lost and etc

(Fraenkel, Wallen, Hyun, 1990)

DETERMINE THE SAMPLE SIZES

The

size

of

the

sample

influences

both

the

representativeness of the sample and the statistical analysis of the data

Larger samples are more likely to detect a difference

between different groups

Smaller

samples

are

more

likely

not

to

be

representative
(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

RULES TO DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZES

The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of

the population required to get a representative sample

For smaller samples (N 100), there is little point in sampling.

Survey the entire population

If the population size is around 500, 50% should be sampled. If the population size is around 1500, 20% should be sampled. .

Beyond a certain point (N = 5000), the population size is almost irrelevant and a sample size of 400 may be adequate.

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

RULES TO DETERMINE SAMPLE SIZES

Minimum numbers of subject needed
(Fraenkel, Wallen, Hyun, 1990)
STUDIES DESCRIPTIVE

MINIMUM NUMBERS 100

CORRELATIONAL
EXPERIMENTAL AND CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE QUALITATIVE

50
30 PER GROUP

1-20

CONTROL FOR BIAS AND ERROR

Be aware of the sources of sampling bias and identify

how to avoid it
Decide whether the bias is so severe that the results of

the study will be seriously affected

In the final report, document awareness of bias, rationale

for proceeding, and potential effects

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

SELECT THE SAMPLE

A process by which the researcher attempts to ensure that the

sample is representative of the population from which it is to be selected

Requires identifying the sampling method that will be used

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

SELECT THE SAMPLE

Two types of sampling
Random sampling Non random sampling

RANDOM SAMPLING
Allows a procedure governed by chance to select the sample;

controls for sampling bias

Every members of the population had equal chances to be

selected
A group of individual represent the entire population
An accurate view of the larger group

Example:
100 students names were place into a box, mixed them thoroughly

and then draws out 25 students name (Fraenkel, Wallen, Hyun, 1990)

RANDOM SAMPLING
Any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random

selection.
In order to have a random selection method, you must set up

some process or procedure that assures that the different units

in your population have equal probabilities of being chosen
Use computers as the mechanism for generating random

numbers as the basis for random selection.

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS

Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling Cluster Random Sampling Two Stage Random Sampling

RANDOM SAMPLING METHOD

The process of selecting a sample that allows individual in the

defined population to have an equal and independent chance of being selected for the sample

E.g.. Obtain 200 samples from 2000 subject by using a table.

Best way to obtain sample representatives in larger population

Table of random number An extreme large list of numbers that has no order or pattern

(Fraenkel, Wallen, Hyun, 1990)

STEPS IN RANDOM SAMPLING METHOD

1.
2. 3. 4.

Identify and define the population

Determine the desired sample size. List all members of the population Assign all individuals on the list a consecutive number from zero to the required number.
1.

Each individual must have the same number of digits as each other individual.

5.

If the number corresponds to the number assigned to any of the individuals in the population, then that individual is included in the sample.

6.

Go to the next number in the column and repeat step #7 until the desired number of individuals has been selected for the sample.
(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGE

Advantages

Large- likely to produce a representative sample Easy to conduct Strategy requires minimum knowledge of the population to be sampled

Disadvantage

Not easy to do
Need names of all population members May over- represent or under- estimate sample members There is difficulty in reaching all selected in the sample

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

Process which certain subgroup

(strata) selected for the

sample in the same proportion that they exist in the population.

E.g.. The proportion of gender as same as in population (percentage)

Dividing your population into homogeneous subgroups and

then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup

Objectives
Divide the population into non-overlapping groups (i.e., strata)

STEPS IN STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

1.
2. 3.

Identify and define the population

Determine the desired sample size Identify the variable and subgroups (strata) for which you want to guarantee appropriate, equal representation.

4.

Classify all members of the population as members of one identified

subgroup. Randomly select, using a table of random numbers) an appropriate number of individuals from each of the subgroups, appropriate meaning an equal number of individuals

5.

(Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, PhD,)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGE

Advantages

More precise sample Can be used for both proportions and stratification sampling Sample represents the desired strata

Disadvantages

Need names of all population members There is difficulty in reaching all selected in the sample Researcher must have names of all populations

CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not

individuals, within the defined population sharing similar characteristics

E.g.. Population of 10,000 teachers, 10 school were as a sample. All

the teachers in 10 schools are sample.

More effective with larger numbers of cluster Similar to simple random sampling

Sampling unit is a group and not the individuals.

STEPS IN CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Identify and define the population Determine the desired sample size. Identify and define a logical cluster. List all clusters (or obtain a list) that make up the population of clusters. List all clusters (or obtain a list) that make up the population of clusters. Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the estimated size of a cluster Randomly select the needed number of clusters by using a table of random numbers. Include in your study all population members in each selected cluster.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGE

Advantages

Efficient

Researcher doesnt need names of all population members Reduces travel to site Useful for educational research

Disadvantage
Fewer sampling points make it less like that the sample is

representative

TWO STAGE RANDOM SAMPLING

Combination of Cluster Random Sampling and

Individual Random Sampling

E.g.. Population 3000 individuals in 100 classes

Selecting 25 class

Randomly select 4 students from each class

Less time-consuming

NONRANDOM SAMPLING
Nonprobability- purposive sampling
Does not have random sampling at any state of the

sample selection; increases probability of sampling bias

Each member did not have equal chance of being selected Example: Each person who enters the bookstore in lunch time will be given a
questionnaire. (anonymous) After two weeks, they got 200 completed questionnaire

NONRANDOM SAMPLING METHODS

Systematic Sampling
Convenience Sampling

Purposive Sampling

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
The

process of selecting individuals within the defined

population from a list by taking every nth name.

E.g.. Random Start

Population- 5000 names Selecting every tenth name on the list till it reach 500 sample

Two term

Sampling interval Sampling ratio

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Sampling Interval
Distance in a list between each of the individuals selected

for sample

Population size ________________ Desired sample size

Sampling Ratio
for the sample

Proportion of individuals in the population that is selected

Sample size ________________ Population size

STEPS IN SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

1. Identify and define the population.
2. Determine the desired sample size 3. Obtain a list of the population 4. Determine what n is equal to by dividing the size of the population by the

desired sample size.

5. Start at some random place in the population list. Close you eyes and

point your finger to a name.

6. Starting at that point, take every nth name on the list until the desired

sample size is reached. If the end of the list is reached before the desired sample is reached, go back to the top of the list.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantage
Sample selection is simple

Disadvantage
All members of the population do not have an equal chance of

being selected
The Nth person may be related to a periodical order in the

population list, producing un-representativeness in the sample

Periodicity- a markedly biased sample can result

If the arrangement of individuals on the list is in some sort of pattern accidentally coincidence with the sampling interval.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
When planning
Ensure no cyclical pattern Not bias the sample

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
The process of including whoever happens to be available at

the time
Called accidental or haphazard sampling

E.g.. Restaurant Manager select 50 samples by choosing the

first 50 students who walk in front of his store.

Cannot be considered as sample Should be avoid

Should be replicated to decrease the like-hood that the results

obtained were simply one time occurrence.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE

Advantage
Convenience

Disadvantage
Bias

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
The process whereby the researcher selects a sample based on

experience or knowledge of the group to be sampled

Use personal judgment to select sample

Suit or not to be a sample

E.g..

1)Teacher choose 2 students from each level of intelligent to find about how does her class feel about the role play in the classroom 2) Researcher only interview those he think possess the needed information.

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
Disadvantage
Researcher s judgment maybe in error

Not be correct in estimating the representativeness and expertise

GENERALIZING FROM A SAMPLE

Generalize
Apply the findings of a particular study to people/ setting

that go beyond the particular people / settings used in study

Considering nature and environmental condition

Determine the External Validity

The extent to which the result of a study can be generalized

from a sample to a population

GENERALIZING FROM A SAMPLE

Population Generalizability
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to

the intended population

Result of investigation need to be applicable as wide as possible Representatives relevant

Contributing factor to any result obtain

The sample must include all students and teacher

Not applicable when

The result is for particular group at particular time

All members are included

GENERALIZING FROM A SAMPLE

Sample - As thoroughly as possible
To let others judge it well Representatives of the target population

Replication
Repeat the study using different groups in different situation

Get same result- additional confidence in generalizing

finding

GENERALIZING FROM A SAMPLE

Ecological Generalizability
The extent to which the results of a study can be

generalized to conditions or settings other than those that prevailed in a particular study
Ensure the nature of environmental conditions same in all

important respects in any new situation

THANK YOU