Dam and Spillways

Lesson goals
At the end of this topic, student should be able to:-

Identify the types and functions of dam and spillways

Evaluate the dam and its storage

Consider the design concept of dam and spillway structures

Introduction

Dam is any artificial barrier and its appurtenant works constructed for the purpose of holding water or any other fluid. Detention/Retention Basin is any structure that functions as a dam.

Typically, it serve multiple purposes, including water supply, flood control, hydroelectric power generation, navigation, and water based recreation activities.

Introduction

Photo credit; http://thecolumbiaexperience.wordpress.com/dams/

Types of reservoir
Valley dam reservoir, dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the reservoir. Dams are typically located at a narrow part of a valley downstream of a natural basin. The valley sides act as natural walls with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide strength and the lowest practical cost of construction

Bank-side reservoirs may be constructed to store the water pumped from the river. The use of bank-side reservoirs also allows a water abstraction to be closed down for extended period at times when the river is unacceptably polluted or when flow conditions are very low due to drought.

Service reservoirs store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution. It perform several functions including ensuring sufficient head of water in the water distribution system and providing hydraulic capacitance in the system to even out peak demand from consumers enabling the treatment plant to run at optimum efficiency.

Type of dams
Gravity concrete dam, is a solid concrete structure that uses its mass to hold back water. It requires massive amount of concrete to provide the weight necessary to withstand the hydrostatic force exerted by the water impounded behind the dam.

Buttress dam have triangular supports called buttresses on the downstream side to strengthen it and to distribute water pressure to the foundation. Used to support a foundation that too week to stand the pressure of gravity dam.

Concrete arch dam, has a curvature design that arches across a canyon and has abutments embedded into solid rock walls. Requires less concrete but must have solid rock as anchor for the abutments.

Earthen embankment dam, more than 50% of the total volume of an earthern dam consists of compacted earth materials. Normally have an impervious core of clay or other material of low permeability that prevent water from rapidly seeping through or beneath the foundation of structure. Have drain installed along the downstream toe of the dam.

Type of reservoir and dams

Coffer dam, a temporary structure enclosing all or part of the construction area so that construction can proceed in the dry. A diversion cofferdam diverts a stream into a pipe, channel, tunnel, or other watercourse.

Diversion dam , a dam built to divert water from a waterway or stream into a different watercourse.

Type of reservoir and dams

Hydropower Dam, a dam that uses the difference in water level between the reservoir pool elevation and the tailwater elevation to turn a turbine to generate electricity.

Photo credit; WTC Berhad

Dam in Peninsula Malaysia

List of dam location in Peninsular Malaysia:

Johor Machap dam, Sembrong dam, Sultan Iskandar Reservoir, Bekok dam. Melaka Jus dam, Durian Tunggal dam Perlis Timah Tasoh dam Perak Bukit Merah dam, Perting dam, Pontian dam, Kemeriang dam, Temenggor dam, Piah dam. Pahang Repas Baru dam, Perting dam, Pontoan dam, Chematu dam, Chereh dam, Chini dam, Kelau dam. Kedah Beris dam. Kelantan Bukit Kwong dam, Pergau dam. Langkawi Padang Saga dam. Penang Itam dam, Mengkuang dam, Teluk Bahang dam. N.Sembilan Gemencheh dam Selangor Batu dam, Langat dam, Selangor dam, Semenyih dam, Subang dam, Tinggi dam. Terengganu Kenyir dam. KL Klang gates dam.

How dam works

A typical dam is a wall of solid material built across a river to block the flow of the river thus storing water in the lake that will form upstream of the dam as water continues to flow from the river upstream of the dam.

The main purpose of most dams is to create a permanent reservoir of water for use at a later time.
The dam must be watertight (ie impermeable or impervious to water) so that water does not leak out of the dam and escape to downstream.

Dam wall must have sufficient strength i. to stand permanently under its own weight ii. resist the water pressure in the lake (greater the depth of water stored behind the dam and the greater the water pressure on the dam wall. A dam must have some way of releasing water in controlled amounts as it is needed ( ie an outlet valve of some type).

Uses of dams
Dams are usually built for one or more of the following reasons:

i.
ii. iii. iv. v.

To provide a supply of water for towns, cities and mining sites To contain and store waste (tailings) from mines; To provide a supply of water for the irrigation; To generate electricity in hydro-electric power stations; To help control or mitigate floods

Dam failures
Dam failures are of particular concern because the failure of a large dam has the potential to cause more death and destruction than the failure of any other man-made structure. This is because of the destructive power of the flood wave that would be released by the sudden collapse of a large dam.

Dam failures
The most common causes of dam failures are:

1) Overtopping of embankment dams due to inadequate spillway discharge capacity to pass flood waters, 2) Faults in construction methods, 3) Geological problems with the dam foundation, 4) Landslides which fall into the storage reservoir, 5) Earthquakes can certainly cause damage to dams

Concept of Dam Design

A gravity dam shall be: Safe against overturning at any horizontal plane within the dam. Safe against sliding at any horizontal place within the dam. So proportioned that the allowable stresses in both the concrete and the foundation shall not be exceeded.

Concept of Dam Design

Existing Dams - Design Flood

Existing dams that are being rehabilitated should have adequate spillway capacity to pass the following floods without overtopping: Hazard Classification A B C Spillway Design Flood (SDF) 100 year 150% of 100 year 50% of PMF

The Service Spillway Design Flood (SSDF) for existing dams is the same as shown for the new dams on Table 1.

Basic assumptions in the design of masonry (rock/ concrete) dams.

The rock that constitutes the foundation is strong enough to carry the forces imposed by the dam The bearing power of the geologic structure is great enough to carry the total loads imposed by the dam without rock movements of detrimental magnitude. The rock formations are homogeneous and uniformly elastic in all directions The flow of the foundation rock under the sustained loads adequately. The base of the dam is thoroughly keyed into the rock formations along the foundations and abutments. Construction operations are conducted so as to secure a satisfactory bond between the concrete and rock materials

Basic assumptions in the design of masonry (rock/ concrete) dams.

The concrete is uniformly elastic in all parts of the structure, Contraction joints are properly grouted under adequate pressures, or open slots are properly filled with concrete, Sufficient drains are installed in the dam to reduce such uplift pressures as may develop along areas of contact between the concrete and rock materials Assumptions of maximum earthquake accelerations Effects of foundation and abutment deformations Action at locations along the sloping

Dam Analysis Gravity Dam

Stability Analysis

The basic loading conditions investigated in the design and guidance for the dam profile and layout.
Preliminary layout of the structure followed by a stability and stress analysis. If the structure fails to meet criteria then the layout is modified and reanalyzed. This process is repeated until an acceptable cross section is attained.

Stability analysis and failure sequence

Dam Analysis Gravity Dam

Flow Net Analysis

Flow nets used to estimate seepage direction and volume and pore pressure at points within the embankment (CANMET 1977). A flow net is a graphical solution of Darcy's law to show steady flow through porous media and is often used to show ground water flow. The variables include flow characteristics (either in terms of flow or head), information on the boundaries of the area to be modeled, and information on the hydraulic conductivity within the area

Static and Dynamic Stress Analyses

Stress Analysis

i.

To determine the magnitude and distribution of stresses throughout the structure for static and dynamic load conditions ii. To investigate the structural adequacy of the substructance and foundation.
Gravity dam stresses are analyzed by either approximate simplified methods or the finite element method depending on the refinement required for the particular level of design and the type and configuration of the dam.
The finite element method is ordinarily used for the feature and final design stages if a more exact stress investigation is required.

Finite element analysis.

Finite element models are used for linear elastic static and dynamic analyses and for nonlinear analyses that account for interaction of the dam and foundation. Provides the capability of modeling complex geometries and wide variations in material properties. (ie; stresses at corners, around openings, tension zones, thermal behavior and couple thermal stresses and etc Dynamic Analysis The structural analysis for earthquake loadings consists of two parts: an approximate resultant location and sliding stability analysis using an appropriate seismic coefficient and a dynamic internal stress analysis using sitedependent earthquake ground motions

SPILLWAYS

A spillway is built in a reservoir to allow the flow of water to safely move downstream when the reservoir is full; The spillway capacity must accommodate the maximum design flood;

A spillway is shaped as a rectangular concrete channel that connects the upstream and downstream regions of a weir; A spillway is located at the top of the reservoir pool. Dams may also have bottom outlets with valves or gates which may be operated to release flood flow, and a few dams lack overflow spillways and rely entirely on bottom outlets..

There are two main types of spillways: controlled and uncontrolled.

A controlled spillway has mechanical structures or gates to regulate the rate of flow. This design allows nearly the full height of the dam to be used for water storage year-round, and flood waters can be released as required by opening one or more gates. An uncontrolled spillway, in contrast, does not have gates; when the water rises above the lip or crest of the spillway it begins to be released from the reservoir. The rate of discharge is controlled only by the depth of water within the reservoir. All of the storage volume in the reservoir above the spillway crest can be used only for the temporary storage of floodwater, and cannot be used as water supply storage because it is normally empty.

Free overall spillways, ogee spillways, drop inlet or morning glory spillways, and chute spillways are common types.

Main decision in designing spillway

The main decisions that have to be taken during the design of a spillway for a dam are: How large a flood should the dam be capable of withstanding, ie what is the Probable Maximum Flood (PMF);

How much of the PMF does the spillway have to handle (ie maximum discharge capacity);
To what extent is it necessary to line the spillway with concrete; To what extent is it necessary to provide energy dissipation structures at the downstream end of the spillway.

Functions of a Spillway
The principal function of a spillway is to pass down the surplus water from the reservoir into the downstream river, there are precisely seven functions that can be assigned to spillway as follows: 1. Maintaining normal river water functions (compensation water supply) 2. Discharging water for utilization 3. Maintaining initial water level in the flood-control operation 4. Controlling floods 5. Controlling additional floods 6. Releasing surplus water (securing dam and reservoir safety) 7. Lowering water levels (depleting water levels in an emergency)

Classification of spillway
Spillways have been classified according to various criteria such as;a) Most prominent feature b) According to function c) According to Control Structure a) According to the most prominent feature i. Ogee spillway ii. Chute spillway iii. Side channel spillway iv. Shaft spillway v. Siphon spillway vi. Straight drop or overfall spillway vii. Tunnel spillway/Culvert spillway viii. Labyrinth spillway ix. Stepped spillway

Classification of spillway
b) According to Function i. Service spillway ii. Auxiliary spillway iii. Fuse plug or emergency spillway c) According to Control Structure i. Gated spillway ii. Ungated spillway iii. Orifice of sluice spillway

OGEE SPILLWAY

OVERFALL SPILLWAY

CHUTE SPILLWAY

LABYRINTH SPILLWAY

SHAFT SPILLWAY

TUNNEL/CULVERT SPILLWAY

SIFPHON SPILLWAY

STEPPED SPILLWAY

Storage and Capacity in the reservoir/dam

The storage zone as shown in figure below present a simplified view of reservoir capacity, since sedimentation storage capacity must generally be provided in all storage zones.

Maximum pool elevation Flood storage capacity Normal pool elevation Active storage Minimum pool elevation Dead storage Firm & secondary yield

DAM

Storage and Capacity in the reservoir/dam

Typically, sediment reserve storage capacity is provided to accommodate sediment deposition expected to occur over a specified design life which for large projects, is typically on the order of 50 - 100 years. Reservoir sedimentation amounts are predicted as the sediment yield entering the reservoir multiplied by trap efficiency.

Trap

efficiency (%)

Se dim ent amount deposited x 100 Se dim ent amount entering

Example 1
A reservoir covers an area of 850 km2 and has an average depth of 18.7m. The inflow to the reservoir is from a river with an average flowrate of 2500 m3/s and a suspended sediment concentration of 250 mg/L. Estimate the rate at which the depth of the reservoir is decreasing due to sediment accumulation and the time it will take for the reservoir storage to decrease by 10%. Assume that the accumulated sediment has a bulk density of 1600 kg/m3.

Given; Inflow rate

= 2500m3 / s 7.88 x1010 m3 / yr

3

Sus.sediment = 250mg / L 0.25kg / m

2 8 2 850 km 8.5 x 10 m Area of reservoir =

Sediment load = inflow rate x suspended sediment concentration

2 m 7.88x10 10

yr

x 0.25 kg

10 kg 1 . 97 x 10 yr m3

Storage capacity = area of reservoir x average depth

8.5 x10 m x 18 .7m 1.59 x10 m

8 2 10

strorage capacity 1.59x1010 Ratio of storage 0.2 see chart 10 annual inf low 7.88x10

Based on ratio of storage capacity = 0.2, sediment trapped = 93%.

The rate sediment accumulate in the reservoir

0.93 x 1.97 kg

yr

1.83x1010 kg

yr

Sediment volume accumulation rate

1.83x1010 kg 1600 kg m3

yr

3 m 11.45x10 6

yr

Rate of sediment accumulation

11 .45 x10 6 m 1.35 cm 0 . 0135 yr yr 8.5 x10 8

This rate, it will take approximately 1385 yrs for the reservoir capacity to decrease by 10% due to sediment accumulation. Since 93% sediment is trapped, 1.83x1010kg/yr sediment load delivered by river,
Sediment release from the reservoir =

(1 0.93)(1.83 x1010 kg yr ) 1.28 x10 9 kg yr

9 1 . 28 x 10 kg yr mg 3 Sediment cont. = 0.065 kg m 65 10 L 1.97 x10 kg yr

Therefore, reservoir reduce the suspended sediment concentration = 250 mg/L to 65 mg/L = (74%) Reservoir trap efficiency (93%) reduction suspended sediment cont. (74%)

Planning Guidelines
Recommended steps in the planning and investigation of dam and reservoir projects are as follows :

i.
ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Identification of project objective approximate magnitudes Selection of a dam and reservoir site Preliminary sizing and determination of dam type Preliminary surveys Hydrologic Investigations Hydrologic analysis