CEMENTING AND COMPLETION

PART ONE CEMENTING TECHNICH

PART TWO COMPLETION

Part one Cementing technique

Section one : Preface
Section two : Portland cement
Section three: Cementing design

Section 1 Preface
The history of Cementing technological
advances
The functions of cementing
The implications of cementing on well
performance

1-1 Cementing technological

advances
Available cements
During the early days, only one or two cements
were available for cementing. As wells became
deeper, more flexibility in cement performance
was required than could be achieved with
available cements. It was with the advent of the
API Standardization Committee in 1937 that
more and better cements were developed.
Today, eight API classes of cements are
available, each with distinct characteristics

 Cement additives
Cement additives have played an important
role in the advancement of cementing
technology. To properly use the available
cements, additives were developed to
control the major cement properties
(thickening time, consistency, fluid-loss
rate, free water, setting time)

 Fluid-loss control
Perhaps one of the most notable developments among all
the additives is the one that controls the fluid-loss rate of
the cement and maintains the proper water-to-cement
ratio. These additives made their debut in the early
1950s in response to deeper drilling below 10,000 to
12,000 ft. For a cement to be pumpable, excess water
above that required for proper hydration is required.
Some or all of this excess water can be easily squeezed
from the slurry, if the cement encounters a permeable
formation in the well-bore during the cement job. The
loss of only a portion of this water can significantly alter
the cement properties. If a high portion of the excess
water is squeezed from the slurry, the cement may
experience what many call a flash set. At this point, the
cement is no longer pumpable and the job is terminated
prematurely. Fluid-loss additives tie up the excess water,
and prevent it from being squeezed from the slurry.

 Reduction in WOC time

In the early 1960s, a significant development
occurred in cement design which has allowed
tremendous saving in rig costs to be realized.
This was made possible by reducing the time for
the cement to harden, the waiting-on-cement
(WOC) time. During the early days, WOC time
averaged 10 days and in some instances up to
28 days before operations could be resumed.
But today, the WOC time is just several hours.
So you can image the big role the reduction of
WOC time played in drilling.

 Density-Altering Additives
The density of neat cement, i.e.,
water and cement, varies from
14.8 to 16.4 lb/gal depending
on the API Class of cement
used. In many cases of high
bottom-hole formation
pressures, the density is too
low to control the well fluids. In
other cases, lower density
cements are required to
prevent lost circulation during
the cement job. Many additives
have been developed to
control and meet density
requirements.

 Testing Equipments
One of the outstanding developments of
mechanical devices for cement slurry design
was the high-temperature, high-pressure
thickening time tester developed in 1939 by R. F.
Farris. The device allowed a more accurate
determination of the thickening time of cement
slurries under a simulated down-hole
environment of temperature and pressure

 Flow After Cementing

Perhaps the most important
development for deeper
high-pressure gas well
has been the control of
flow after cementing. Gas
must be prevented from
invading the cement.
There are several
successful methods to
control gas migration.
Usually a combination of
methods works best.

 Well preparation and hole conditioning

Uppermost in all planning and drilling decisions must be
that the well-bore be cementable. The cost of repairing a
faulty cement job can far exceed savings in drilling costs.
Mud displacement efficiency during the cementing job
can be enhanced by properly conditioning the mud. This
is one phase of the entire operation that should not be
rushed-up to 24 hours may be required to properly
condition the mud and well-bore after the casing is on
the bottom. At best, a cement slurry can only follow the
path of the drilling mud circulating ahead of it in the
annulus. Therefore, the time required to properly
condition the mud and the hole will be very well spent.
Centralization of the casing, as well as pipe movement
during mud conditioning and cementing, also improves
the chances for a successful cement job. Beneficial
results are obtained with either pipe reciprocation or
rotation, or both simultaneously.

 Job execution and monitoring

Equipment and techniques have been developed
to properly monitor all of the many parameters of
a cement job. In turn, this allows timely decisions
to make changes during execution to improve
job success. Recorded data normally include
pump rate in, annulus rate out, well-head
pressure, density of fluids pumped in and those
returning, cumulative displacement volume,
cumulative return volume, and hook load during
pipe reciprocation.

1-2 The functions of cementing

Cementing bonding building a base for
future

Prevention is better than cure

Cement Bondingbuilding a
base for future production
Production activities after drilling the well depend
on a good primary cement job. A solid,
continuous cement sheath around the casing is
a necessity for protecting formation integrity,
promoting maximum production from pay zones,
as well as prolonging the productive life of the
well. Poor bonding between casing wall and
cement or between the cement and the well bore
can provide paths for fluid migration.

Along with some very important

secondary objectives, a
successful cementing job is
primarily depend on:
1. The isolation of porous
formations under all applied
loads.
2. The exclusion of unwanted
fluids from producing
intervals
3. And the confinement of
abnormally pressured
formations.

Prevention is better than the cure

In an oil well, as in the human body, prevention of
a health problem is better than a cure. A long
and productive well life is possible if the right
care is taken in the primary cementing job. The
consequences of a bad cement job are often a
costly squeeze job or damage to producing
formation which may result in costly production
efforts such as block squeezing or the
installation of expensive fluid treating equipment
and often drilling of water disposal well.

Factors important to a good cement job

Achieving a perfect primary cement job involves several key elements:
1.Cleaning the annulus without gouging, enhancing cement bonding to
the well bore.
2. Centering the casing in the holes to form a uniform sheath around
the casing and minimize the chances of a channeling effect on the
cement job.
3. Strengthening the cement in the annular spaces to allow for proper
perforation in the producing zones.
4. Bonding of the cement to the casing surface to eliminate the
possibility of a micro-annulus.
5.Providing the necessary pipe movement, either rotation or
reciprocation to increase turbulence, improve circulation, and
provide complete displacement of the drilling fluid with cement.

1-3 Implications of cementing on

well performance
1-3-1 Introduction
Zonal isolation is surely the most important function of the
cement sheath. While flow of any fluid along and through
the cement sheath is undesirable, upward gas flow or gas
migration through and along the cement sheath has
received particularly attention. Gas migration can open
additional flow paths, in the form of interconnected
porosity through the setting cement. Flow paths may also
take the form of discrete conductive channels( microannuli ) at the pipe/cement or cement/formation interfaces.
A seemingly small micro-annulus width will result in a very
large effective permeability through the cement sheath. So
the creating of a micro-annulus should be of primary
concern.

 1-3-2 Zonal isolation

Zonal isolation is the most
important function of
cementing, the simple
way to attempt the
amount of the zonal
isolation is to compare
the producing rate of the
active layer into the well
with the contributions of
an overlying or underlying
formation through the
cement sheath.

 For simplicity, let us consider steady-state

flow into the well from the producing layer.
The equation is given below:
q=

kh( Pc pwf )
re
141.2 B [ln s ]
rw

q= flow rate (stb/D)

K=permeability (md)
h=thickness (ft)
Pc=reservoir pressure (psi)
Pwf=flowing bottom hole pressure (psi)
U=viscosity (cp)
S=skin factot
B=formation volume factor

For a gas well, the equation is

kh( Pe Pwf )
re
1424 ZT [ln s]
rw
2

q=

For flow into the producing layer from

another formation, there will be

k (rw rcas )( pi pwf )

*

qcem

1424 ZT (L)1

 Conclusion
The above discussion demonstrates that the ability
of a well to achieve its production potential is
influenced most by the degree of zonal isolation
achieved during the completion. The quality of
the cement sheath is in turn the most important
factor influencing zonal isolation. Therefore, the
cementation of a well should be of critical
importance to every operator.

Section 2 Portland cement

Introduction
Portland cement is by far the most important
binding material in terms of quantity produced. It
is used in nearly all well cementing operations.
Portland cement is the most common example
of a hydraulic cement., which involves chemical
reactions between water and the compounds
present in the cement, not upon a drying-out
process. In this section, fundamental information
is presented regarding the basic materials and
the classification.

2-1 Materials :
Portland cement consists principally of four
compounds: tri-calcium silicate(C3 S ) , di-calcium
silicate ( C2 S ), tri-calcium aluminate ( C3 A )
and tetracalium aluminoferrite ( C3 AF ). These
compounds are formed in a kiln by a series of
reactions at temperatures as high as 1500
between lime, silica, alumina, and iron oxide.

 In the above

C CaO
S SiO2
A Al2O3
F Fe2 o3

Two types of raw

materials are needed
to prepare a mixture
that will produce
Portland cement:
calcareous materials
which contain lime,
and argillaceous
materials which
contain alumina, silica
and iron oxide.

2-2 Classification
API classification system
There are 8 classes of API Portland cements,
designated A through H. They are arranged
according to the depths to which they are
placed, and the temperatures and pressures
to which they are exposed. If you meet some
problems in using the specifications, you can
refer to them in some handbooks. Here is the
simple classification.

 Class A : intended for use from surface to a depth of

6,000 ft (1830m), when special properties are not
required. Available only in Ordinary type, Class A is
similar to ASTM type I cement.
Class B intended for use from surface to a depth of
6,000 ft (1,830m), when conditions require moderate to
high sulfate resistance.
Class C: intended for use from surface to a depth of
6,000 ft (1830 m), when conditions require high early
strength. Class C is available in all three degrees of
sulfate resistance.
Class D: intended for use at depths from 6,000 ft
(1830m), to 10,000 ft (3,050m), under conditions of
moderately high temperatures and pressures .

 Class E: intended for use from 10,000 ft

(3,050m) to 14,000 ft (4,270m) depth, under
conditions of high temperatures and pressures.
Class F: intended for use from 10,000 ft
(3050m) to 16,000 ft (4,880 m) depth, under
conditions of extremely high temperature and
pressures.
Class G: intended for use as a basic well
cement from surface to 8000 ft
Class H: (2440m) depth as manufactured, or
can be used with accelerators
and retarders to cover a wide range
of well depths and temperature .they are
identical in chemical compositions

2-3 Cement additives

2-3-1 Introduction
In well cementing, Portland cement systems are routinely designed for
temperatures
ranging
from below freezing in permafrost zones to
0
0
F
(350
C
)
700
in thermal recovery and geothermal wells. In
addition to severe temperatures and pressures, well cements must
often be designed to contend with weak or porous formations,
corrosive fluids, and over-pressured formation fluids. It has been
possible to accommodate such a wide range of conditions only
through the development of cement additives. Additives modify the
behavior of the cement system, ideally allowing successful slurry
placement between the casing and the formation, rapid compressive
strength development, and adequate zonal isolation during the
lifetime of the well. Today over 100 additives for well cements are
available, many of which can be supplied in solid or liquid forms.

2-3-2 Categories
Eight categories of additives are generally
recognized.
1.Accelerators: chemicals which reduce the setting
time of a cement system, and increase the rate
of compressive strength development.
2.Retarders: chemicals which extend the setting
time of a cement system
3.Extenders: materials which lower the density of a
cement system, and/or reduce the quantity of
cement per unit volume of set product.

4.Weighting Agents: materials which increase the density of

a cement system
5.Dispersants: chemical which reduce the viscosity of a
cement system
6.Fluid-Loss Control Agents: materials which control the
loss of the aqueous phase of a cement system to the
formation.
7.Lost Circulation Control Agents: materials which control
the loss of cement slurry to weak or vugular formations
8.Specialty Additives: miscellaneous additives, antifoam
agents

2-4 Special cement system

2-4-1 Introduction
As the technology of well cementing has
advanced, certain problems have been
encountered for which special cement
systems have been developed. This
chapter presents cement technologies
specific to such problems as slurry
fallback, lost circulation, micro-annuli,
cementing across salt formations, and
corrosive well environments.

2-4-2 Thixotropic cements

Thixotropy is a term used to

describe the property exhibited
by a system that is fluid under
shear, but develops a gel
structure and becomes selfsupporting when at rest.
In practical terms, thixotropic
cement slurries are thin and
fluid during mixing and
displacement, but rapidly form
a rigid self-supporting gel
structure when pumping
ceases. Upon reagitation, the
gel structure breaks and the
slurry is again fluid and
pumpable.

2-4-3 Expansive cement systems

Cement systems which expand slightly
after setting are recognized as a means of
sealing micro-annuli and improving
primary cementing results. The improved
bonding is the result of mechanical
resistance or tightening of the cement
against the pipe and formation. Good
bonding can be obtained even if mud is
left on the casing or formation surfaces.

2-4-4 Freeze-protected cements

Permafrost is defined as any permanently
frozen subsurface formation. When
permafrost exists, thawing of the formation
must be avoided during drilling and
completion. Two types of cement systems
have been shown to perform successfully
in this severe environment: (1) calcium
aluminate cement, and (2)
gypsum/Portland cement blends

2-4-5 Salt cement systems

Cement systems which contain significant
quantities of sodium chloride (NaCl) or
potassium chloride ( KCl) are commonly called
salt cements .
2-4-6 Latex-modified cement systems
Latex is a general term describing an emulsion
polymer. The material is usually supplied as a
milky suspension of very small spherical polymer
particles(200 to 500 nm in diameter). Most latex
dispersions contain about 50% solids.

2-4-7 Cements for corrosive

environments
Set Portland cement is a remarkably durable and
forgiving material; however, there are limits
beyond which it will rebel. In a well-bore
environment, Portland cement is subject to
chemical attack by certain formations and by
substances injected from the surface. In addition
to geothermal well cementing ,one must also
pay close attention to cement durability in wells
for chemical waste disposal and for enhanced oil
recovery by CO2-flooding.

Section 3 Cementing design

3-1 cementing materials
Before describing the design and function of
cementing equipment, one must be familiar with
the physical and chemical properties of the
various cementing materials.
1.Cement
2.Water Fresh water is normally used for
cementing onshore wells , and seawater for
offshore locations.
3.Dry cement additives
4.Liquid additives

3-2 cementing equipments

3-2 Basic equipment
1.Tansportation of bulk materials or blends to the well-site, such as
using land rigs or offshore rigs.
2.well-site storage of cement or blends
3.Metering of water A set of twin 10-bbl tanks is preferred.
4.Liquid-additives storage and mixing The mixing system consists of
two principal parts a storage
unit and a metering unit (which consists of 3 or 4 25-gal or 10-L tanks
with visible level scales )
5.Cement mixing There are several mixing systems : conventional jet
mixer, recirculation jet mixer and without conventional jets.
6. High-pressure pumps
7.Cementing units
8.Casing hardware It includes rubber plugs, centralizer, float collar and
guide shoe.

Typical process

Mixing and pumping equipment on

rig site

 The equipment used on or within the casing

string to enhance casing placement and
cementing operations, within the oil industry, this
equipment is commonly referred to as casing
hardware and cementing tools. Casing hardware
consists of a wide variety of mechanical devices
which are used to enhanced primary cementing
operations. Some common types of casing
hardware include guide shoes, floating and autofill shoes and collars, stage collars, and external
attachments such as scratchers and
centralizers. Cementing tools are generally
retrievable devices, and may require some form
of operation from the surface. Packers, bridge
plugs, and retainers are examples of cementing
tools.

Typical cementing truck

Types of centralizing

Cementing plugs

 Retrievable
squeeze
packers are
used in
multiple
setting
operations

3-3 Cement job design

3-3-1 Introduction
The factors need to
be examined are:
1.
Depth/configuratio
nal data
2. well-bore
environment
3. Temperature data

 1 Depth/ configurational data

These include information concerning the vertical depth,
measured depth, casing size ( and weight), open-hole
size, and string type. Depth data are particularly
important because they strongly influence the
temperature, fluid volume, hydrostatic pressure, and
friction pressure. High angles of deviation can have a
tremendous impact on many well parameters, and may
require the design of special systems for mud
displacement and cement slurries exhibiting no free
water. In principle, open-hole size is dictated by drill-bit
size which, along with casing size and type, should be
selected on the basis of the expected well conditions and
the final expected completion configuration.

 2 Well-bore environment
The specific problems posed by the nature of the
open-hole interval traversed by the casing string
require careful evaluation. One must consider
the presence of pay zones, of over-pressured
formations, or, etc. Pore pressures are important
from a those with low fracture gradients, gas,
massive salt zones well-security standpoint, and
information on this chemical properties of the
mud also need to be may be obtained by mud
logging. The physical and considered when
designing a cement job. Chemical washes,
spacers, or other flush fluids must be compatible
with the mud as well as the cement, and may
need to contain special additives.

 3 Temperature data
Both bottom-hole circulating temperature (BHCT) and
bottom-hole static temperature
(BHST) need to be considered as well as the temperature
differential (DT) between the bottom and top of the
cement column. The first of these, BHCT, is the
temperature to which the cement will , theoretically, be
exposed as it is placed in the well. As such, it is the
temperature which will be used for high temperature,
high-pressure thickening time testing of the proposed
cement formulation. BHST is important principally for
either the assessment of the long-term stability, or the
rate of compressive strength development of a given
cement system. The temperature differential between
the top and bottom of the cement can be extremely
important when embarking upon a cementing design.

3-3-2 The design of casing size

1.Longitudinal force
W=L*q
W-the force exposed at the casing head ,N
L-the length of the casing, m
q-the weight per meter, Kg/m
Considering the force of the mud:
Wf=L*q*(1-Rn/Rg)
g / cm3
Rn-the density of the mud ,
3
Rg-the density of the casing, 7.8 g / cm
2. The compression from the outside
P=0.1*H*Rn
H-the length of the casing

3-3-3 The design of cement

1.The volume of cement

2
2
2
V k1 ( D d1 ) H d 2 h
4
4
D-the diameter of the well-hole
d1-the outside diameter of the casing
d2-the inside diameter of the casing
H-the height of the mud to be lifted
h-the height of the slurry

2. G=k2*Q*V
G-the volume of the cement , bag
3
m
Q-the volume of dry cement needed per 1

( L d L d Lslurry
L L d )
V-the volume of theV cement
4
3.The volume of fresh water
Vw=V1*G
V1-the water needed to mix into slurry per bag
cement
4. The volume of mud to be displaced

Vmud ( L1d12 L2 d 22 L L Ln d n2 )
4
2

mud

1 1

2
2

2
n

5.The maximum of the pumping pressure

If the depth is less than 1000m
p=0.1*(H-h)*(R1-R)+0.01L+8
If the depth is more than 1000m
P=0.1*(H-h)*(r1-r)+0.01+16
H-the height of the cement slurry in the annulus
h-the length of the slurry in the case tube
6.The time needed to squeeze cement
T=T1+T2+T3
T1-the time of mixing cement
T2-the fixing time of equipments ,about 1-3 minutes
T3-the time to squeeze cement

Example of job design procedure

The plan is to cement a 47-lbm/ft, 25-cm casing at a depth
of 9,300 ft (2,835 m). The well is vertical, and the
previous casing (68-lnm/ft,13 .3/8 in ) is set at 5,350 ft
(1,630 m). The hole is reasonably gauge, with an openhole diameter of 12.5 in. (32 cm) for much of its length.
Two shale sections show some washout (to a maximum
of 15.5 in.[39.3 cm]), while two other intervals are tight
(12.25in. [31 cm]). Because of the hydrostatic limitations
and the temperature differentials, a stage collar will be
set just inside the shoe of the 13.3/8 in. (34-cm) casing.
There are several features of the open-hole interval which
require special attention. The most obvious in the
presence of a major pay zone extending from 8,450 to
8,850 ft ( 2,576 to 2,697 m). This has the highest pore

pressure and, therefore, probably poses the

greatest risk to well control. Fracture pressures
for the entire open hole are fairly low, but a large
depleted interval extending from 6,500 to 7,000
ft (1,981 to 2,134 m) exhibits the lowest fracture
gradient in the well. This further restricts the
choice of fluids. The mud in the hole is a waterbase polymer system with a density of 11.4lb/gal (1.37 g/cm*3) ,a system which maintains
adequate coverage of the pay zones 10.8-lb/gal
(1.30 g/cm*3) equivalent mud-weight pore
pressure.
0
The report BHST for the well is 238 F (114 0C )

which corresponds to a geothermal gradient of 1.7

F /100 ft . The calculated circulating temperature
(BHCT0 ) in the well (from API tables, Appendix
0
B) is 168
static
F (76
C ). The calculated
0
temperature at the TOC is 167 F (75 0C ), which
is close to the BHCT. For this reason, the
cements compressive strength development
should not be impaired. A summary of the well
data can be found in Table 11-5. From this
information, we can draw several conclusions:
* Two cement slurries, a low-density lead and a
normal density tail, will probably be required due
to hydrostatic limitations. The tail slurry should
be used to cover the pay zones and a
reasonable length of annulus above them.

 Both slurries will require the incorporation of fluid-loss

additives to avoid damage to pay zones, possible bridge,
etc.
Dispersants will probably be required due to the use of
fluid-loss additives, and to the fact that the friction
pressures generated by viscous slurries could pose a
risk to weak zones.
A cement retarder will be required to achieve adequate
placement time.
It is unlikely that the cement slurries will be pumped in
turbulent flow, because of the size of the annular gap
and the presence of weak zones.
With mixing and pumping time taken into account, the
duration of the job is likely to be 2.5 to 3 hours. With one
hour for safety, we would normally look for a minimum
thickening time of 3.5 to 4 hours for the lead slurry, and
somewhat less for the tail. However, considering that this
is a two-stage job, the possibility exists that the cement
may be lifted above the stage collar because of
inaccuracies in the hole caliper.

Based on these observations, the first-guess preferred job design

would be as follows.
First-Stage Lead Slurry
API Class G cement
+ Extender
+ Fluid-Loss Additive
+ Retarder
mixed at 12.5 lb/gal (1.50g/cm*3) using rig water Thickening time :
4 to 5 hours
API Fluid-Loss Rate: 150 to 300 mL/30 min
First-Stage Tail Slurry
API Class G Cement
+ 35% BWOC silica Flour
+ Fluid-Loss Additive
+ Dispersant
+ Retarder
mixed at 15.8 lb/gal (1.90 g/cm*3) using rig water
Thickening time : 3 to 4 hours
API Fluid-Loss Rate: 50 to 150 mL/30 min

Mud Removal
chemical Wash: 20 bbl
Turbulent Flow Spacer (12 lb/gal [1.44 g/cm*3]): 80 bbl
Total volume
100 bbl
The casing should be well centralized and rotated/reciprocated through
the job.
Laboratory testing optimizes the slurry formulations to meet the
required performance specifications, and also provides data
concerning the rheological properties of the slurries, spacers, and
mud at both surface and down-hole conditions. These data ( Table
11-6, 11-7, and 11-8 ) are then used in the final job design.
It must be stressed here that these calculations are based purely on
hydrostatic pressures, and are used to determine well security after
placement. A graphical representation of these data is shown in Fig,
11-3. a simulation of the actual operation, including shutdowns, rate
changes, U-tubing, etc., is shown in Figs 11-4 and 11-5 . A job
schedule table, representative of the expected rig procedures, upon
which the simulation is based, is illustrated in Table 11-9 . Figure 114 illustrates the fact that flow rates in and out of the well are not
equivalent for a large part of the job.

 Figure
11-4
Flowrate
compa
rison
at
depth
of
9300 ft

3-4 Primary cementing techniques

3-4-1 Introduction
Primary cementing is a technique for placing
cement slurries in the annular space between
the casing and the bore-holes. The cement then
hardens to form a hydraulic seal in the well-bore,
preventing the migration of formation fluid in the
annulus. Primary cementing is therefore one of
the most critical stages during the drilling and
completion of a well.

3-4-2 Classification of casing

strings
A series of casing strings is necessary to complete
a well, and produce the desired fluids
successfully. The design of the casing program
is contingent upon several factors (1) depth, (2)
the sizes of the holes in which the casing strings
are to be set, (4) the mud-column and formation
pressures, (5) the condition of the formation,
and (6) the drilling objectives. The casing string
must also be designed to withstand the
mechanical and chemical stresses in the well.

1. Conductor pipe
The conductor is usually the first and shortest casing string.
Its purpose is to protect shallow sands from being
contaminated by drilling fluids, and help prevent
washouts which can easily occur near the surface
because of loose, unconsolidated topsoils, gravel
beds, etc. the conductor pipe also serve as a channel
to raise the circulating fluid high enough to return to the
mud system. It can be used for the attachment of a
blowout preventer (BOP), should gas sands, for
example, be encountered at shallow depths. The
conductor pipe serves to protect the subsequent
casing strings from corrosion, and may be used to
support some of the wellhead load when the ground
support may be inadequate.

 2 Surface casing
The second string of casing, which serves to case off
unconsolidated formations and aquifers found at
relatively shallow depths, is known as surface casing. In
addition to maintaining hole integrity, the surface casing
prevents the contamination of fresh groundwater by
drilling fluids, subterranean brines, oil, or gas. Quite
often, the surface casing is the first string to which BOPs
are connected. Therefore, the selected casing must be
strong enough to support a BOP and to withstand the
gas or fluid pressures which may be encountered.
Surface casing should have the strength to support
further casing strings and production tubulars, and
provide a solid anchor for the casing head when the well
is put on production. Ordinarily, the burst pressure
should be equal to one psi per foot of depth to which it is
set.

 3 Producing casing
Setting this string of casing is one of the principal objectives
when drilling a well. In many ways, the production string
is the oil well. This string of casing serves to isolate the
reservoir from undesirable fluids in the producing
formation, and from other zones penetrated by the wellbore. It is the protective housing for the tubing and other
equipment used in a well. The production casing is
normally run and cemented through a zone to be
produced, and then perforated to allow communication
with the formation. Sometimes it is set just above the
zone, and an open-hole completion is performed. The
production casing is normally the last casing set in the
well. It may be subjected to maximum well pressures
and temperatures, and must be designed to withstand
such conditions. The cementing of production casings is
critical.

3-4-3 Cement placement

procedures
The vast majority of primary cement jobs is performed
by pumping the cement slurry down through the casing
and up the annulus. Other techniques also exist for
solving various well-completion problems. For largediameter casings, the traditional cementing technique is
frequently inadequate; consequently, cementing through
the drill-pipe or a grouting technique, where the cement
is circulated into place by pumping the slurry down one
or more small diameter pipes place in the annular gap, is
performed. when cementing intermediate or production
casings, well conditions and the length of interval to be
cemented will decide the placement technique to used.

1. Single-Stage cementing
After the casing is in place, the mud is circulated
as long as necessary to remove high-gelstrength mud pockets formed during the semistatic period of removing the drill-pipe, logging,
or running the casing. Mud circulation is
usually performed through the cement head to
avoid stopping for an excessive period of time
after the mud has been conditioned. If a singleplug cement head is used, circulation must be
stopped prior to cementing to load both
cement plugs.

Typical one-stage primary cement

job on a surface casing string

2.Multiple-Stage cementing
Multiple-stage cementing may be necessary for a variety of
reasons:
Down-hole formations unable to support hydrostatic
pressures exerted by a long column of cement,
Upper zone to be cemented with ( higher density, higher
compressive strength ) uncontaminated cement, and
Cement not required between widely separated intervals.
Most of the reasons for multiple-stage cementing fall in the
first category. Three standard multistage techniques are
commonly employed:
Regular two-stage cementing where the cementing of
each stage is a distinct and separate operation,
Continuous two-stage cementing with both stages
cemented in one continuous operation, and
Three-stage cementing where each stage is cemented
as a separate operation.

4. Liners
A liner is a string of standard casing which does not extend
all the way to the surface, but is hung from inside the
previous casing string. The overlap depends on the
purpose of the liner, and could vary from 50 ft ( 15 m) for
drilling liners to as long as 500 ft (152 m) for production
liners. Liners can be classified as follows:
* production liners: run from the last casing to total depth,
they replace production casing. Cementing is usually
critical as zonal isolation is essential during production
and any subsequent stimulation treatments that may be
necessary.
Drilling or intermediate liners: these are set primarily to
case off and isolate zones of lost circulation, highly overpressured zones, sloughing shales, or plastic formations,
so that drilling may be continued.
Tieback stub liners: these extend from the top of an
existing liner to a point up-hole inside another casing.

Types of liners

Regular liner cementing

The liner cement head and manifold are installed
on the drill-pipe with the pump-down slurry
displacement plug placed between the two
inlets. The plug releasing stem holds the plug in
cement head. After the cementing lines are
rigged up and pressure tested, the chemical
wash or spacer is pumped down the drill-pipe.
No bottom wiper plug is used ahead of the
spacer or slurry. Once the slurry is pumped into
the drill-pipe, the pump-down plug is dropped
and displaced to the liner hanger. At this point,
the pump-down plug passes through the liner
setting tool, and then latches into and seals the
hole in the liner wiper plug.

3-4-4 Putting the squeeze on

cement
Three techniques of squeeze cementing are in use today.
The seldomly used Braden head method pumps slurry
into casing at the surface below a closed wellhead. The
bullhead squeeze method displaces slurry through
open-ended tubing or drill pipe, usually with the casing
head closed.
Both of the above procedures are risky because the slurry
is not controlled or confined to depth. By far, the mostly
widely used approach uses drill pipe and tubing packer
or cement retainer. A packer or retainer is run in place,
the working string is seated and squeezing is
accomplished below.

Squeezing is a touchy undertaking, it is for two

reasons:
First, due to formation pressure, temperature,
porosity, permeability and chemical makeup of
reservoir fluids, cement slurries don not always
react according to specifications.
Secondly ,the cost of washing over is enormous.
For 100 ft of working string covered, recovery
time with a work-over rig on daylight schedule
can take up to 1 months, barring unforeseen
difficulties. Occasionally the well is lost in such
cases.

3-4-5 Mud removal

Introduction
The main objective of a primary cement job is to
provide complete and permanent isolation of the
permeable zones located behind the casing. To
meet this objective, the drilling mud and the preflush(if any) must be fully removed from the
annulus, and the annular space must be
completely filled with cement slurry. Therefore,
good mud removal and proper slurry placement
are essential to obtain well isolation.

Research concerning the cement

placement process began in the 1930s.
Some key factors influencing primary
cement job failures were identified, and
solutions were proposed as early as 1940.
But mud displacement remains a subject
of much current experimental and
theoretical work. The major difficulty arises
from the fact that both the experimental
and theoretical approaches suffer from
severe limitations.

3-5 Horizontal well cementing

3-5-1 Horizontal well classifications
Horizontal wells are those in which part of the wellbore is inclined 90 centigrade with respect to
vertical, although less-than-horizontal, highangle wells often receive this designation. The
horizontal portion of the well is often called a
drain-hole . Horizontal drilling techniques can
be subdivided into three different groups,
depending on the angle build rate : long,
medium, and short radius.

3-5-2 Completion procedures

Most horizontal holes are completed without cementing.
The horizontal section is often lined with a slotted liner,
pre-perforated liner or, in some cases, wire-wrapped
sand control liners. In such wells, the formation rock
must have sufficient integrity to prevent collapse or
sloughing, particularly when approaching depletion. Very
rarely can horizontal wells be completed as an open hole
without some method of lining.
The previous intermediate casing, which is frequently highly
deviated, must have a good cement job. This is
necessary to protect the intermediate string from
produced fluids, and to provide isolation between the
upper cased off zones and the lower producing intervals.
Often, however, there are horizontal well completion and
production circumstances which dictate that casing must
be run, and some form of isolation initiated. Some of
these are listed below.

 When subsequent multi-interval stimulation

treatments of the reservoir are planned.
When gas-coning and water-coning control
problems are foreseen due to the bore-hole
penetrating or being too close to the gas cap or
water table. This may result from loss of
directional control causing the bore-holes to
meander, or simply penetration of the gas cap
prior to entering the oil producing zone.
When current producing intervals may require
remedial cementing to prevent unwanted water
or gas breakthrough.
Examples of typical horizontal completions and
cementing methods are illustrated.

3-6 Cement job evaluation

3-6-1 Introduction
Cement job evaluation consists of checking whether the
objectives have been reached after the job has been
performed. No evaluation of the cement job will be
efficient if the objectives are not clear. Cement provides
some corrosion protection to all the casing strings.
Before the development of cement bond logs, the
evaluation of cement jobs was performed either by
testing the hydraulic isolation or locating the top of the
cement. The method of evaluation must be selected
according to the objective to reached.

3-6-2 The methods of evaluation

1.Hydraulic testing
It consists of testing the isolation provided
by the cement. This can be after primary
cement jobs, when water zones are
located near the oil or gas zone to be
produced. There are several techniques
which are common used, such as
pressure testing, dry testing.

2. Temperature, nuclear and noise

logging measurements
Temperature logging is often used for cement evaluation.
It is used for primary cementing evaluation, mainly in topof-cement detection. Temperature surveys are also run to
detect leaks or channeling.
Nuclear logging
In the oil industry, it is common practice to add radioactive
materials as tracers. This technique can be used to tag
drilling mud and to estimate circulation times and
volumes, by detecting the radioactive material in the
returns. Several radioactive tracers can be used in
cementing.
Noise logging
It can be used to detect fluid flow behind the casing, or
fluid/gas entry inside a well-bore.

3.Acoustic logging measurements

Acoustic logs are without a doubt the most widely used and
efficient method to evaluate cement jobs. Cement job
evaluation through acoustic log interpretation seeks the
relationship between the response of a tool and the
quality of the cement job after a given time following
cement placement, with the response of acoustic tools,
related to the acoustic properties of the surrounding
environment( casing, cement, and formation) , it is
possible to determine the quality of the acoustic coupling
between the casing, cement, and formation. The
analysis of the log must be performed very carefully to
determine the origin of the log response.

PART Two Completion

Section 1 Introduction

Section 2 Connecting the pay zone and the

borehole

Section 1 Introduction to
completion
1-1 Main factors influencing completion design
1.Parameters related to the wells purpose
The purpose of drilling can vary depending on the well, with a
distinction basically made between: an exploration well; an appraisal
well; a development well
2.Parameters related to the environment
There may be constraints on operation due to the country or site where
the well is located, whether on land or offshore.
3.Parameters related to drilling
Type of drilling rig ,well profile and the drilling program are the factors
should be considered.
4.Parameters related to the reservoir
The reservoir pressure and its changes is the main factor that we have
to consider.
5.safety

Diameters available according to

the drilling and casing program

1-2 Overall approach to a wells

flow capacity

A wells flow capacity is a crucial parameter because of its

economic consequences. It is therefore important to endeavor to
assess it. However, it should be pointed out that the flow capacity
evolves over time and unfortunately tends to decrease.
1.
Base equation
A wells flow rate depends on ;

The existing pressure difference, the reservoir pressure( Pr) and

the back pressure exerted down-hole (Pbh).

Parameters that involve the type of reservoir and in-place fluid

1-1 the case of an oil well
Here, provided there is no tree gas, that the low can be considered to
be of the radio cylindric steady-state type and that the fluid
velocity is not too great in the vicinity of the well-bore, the flow
equation can be simplified to :
Q=PI*(Pr-Pbh)

Where the productivity index (PI) mainly depends

on the viscosity of the fluid, the permeability of
the formation itself, the disturbances in the
vicinity of the well-bore and the thickness of the
reservoir.
In fact the actual productivity index (PI) can be
compared with the theoretical productivity index
(PIth) of a vertical well at the level of the
formation that would have been drilled under
ideal conditions. By this we mean without having
interfered with the reservoir characteristics in the
vicinity of the well-bore (permeability especially)
and with no restrictions on the connection
between the reservoir and the well-bore.

Here the theoretical productivity index is as follows:

PI th
With :

hk
R
ln
rw

numerical coefficient depending, among other things

h reservoir thickness
K reservoir permeability
u- viscosity of the fluid in the reservoir
R- well drainage radius
rw- well-bore radius

 As far as the real well is concerned, all of the

disturbances in the vicinity of the well-bore (skin
effect) are lumped together under the term s
(skin factor) in the following way:

hk
PI
R
(ln s )
rw
furthermore, the flow efficiency (Fe) is defined as
the ratio between the actual flow rate and the
theoretical flow rate that the ideal well would
have under the same bottom-hole pressure
conditions:

R
ln
rw
Q
PI
Fe

Qth PI th (ln R s )
rw

In practice lnR/rw often ranges between 7

and 8 , hence the simplified form :

PI
7
8
Fe

to
PI th 7 s 8 s

 A skin factor of 7 to 8 therefore

corresponds to a flow capacity that has
been divided by two. A factor of 14 to 16
therefore means it has been reduced by
two-thirds. In contrast, a skin factor of -3.5
to -4 (after well stimulation for example)
means that it has been doubled.

1-3 Major types of completion

configurations
1. The purpose of completion is to enable wells to

be exploited as rationally and economically as

possible and it can involve a large number of
configurations. In selecting the type of completion,
certain principles of relativity and anticipation must
be kept in mind:
(1) How do completion and maintenance costs
compare with expected profits?
(2) How does a possible money-saving measure
compare with the risks it implies? Is the risk worth
taking?
(3) How will the production of the field and of the
given well evolve in theory ?

 1-3-1 Basic requirements

Above all the completion configuration must be able to
solve the following problems effectively:
(1) maintain borehole wall stability
(2) ensure selective production of the fluid or formation
(3)create a minimum amount of restrictions in the flow
path
(4) ensure well safety
(5) allow the well flow rate to be adjusted
(6) allow operations to be performed on the well at a later
(7) make work-over easier when it does become
necessary

 1 bore-hole wall stability

This point is self-evident for wells with wall
stability problems from the beginning. For
some bore-holes , wall stability may
deteriorate with time due to various factors
(depletion, water, cut, etc). even in this
case, it is important for the problem to
solved as soon as the well is brought on
stream to maintain technical efficiency and
avoid costly work-over jobs.

 2 Selectivity
The problem may either involve one bore-hole that
penetrates several reservoir formations or one reservoir
containing several fluids. It is necessary to understand
the reservoir and its behavior over time , especially in the
second case.
The contrast in mobility (ratio between permeability and
viscosity for a given fluid )
between the target fluid and the other fluids present is also
a very important parameter. It is particularly unfavorable
for oil and gas.
3. Minimizing restrictions in the flow path
In the long run all energy consumption in the form of
pressure losses has a negative effect, either in terms of
flow rate or natural flow capability. As a result, it is
important to endeavor to minimize these restrictions.

 4 Well safety
Here we mean both safety during completion operations as
such and also safety later on during production. The main
points that need to be taken into consideration are the
pressure , equipment corrosion and erosion, and effluent
toxicity.
5. Flow adjustment
During production the flow of a well needs to be controlled.
In particular reservoir considerations or local regulations
may mean that the flow rate must be deliberately limited.
6. Operations at a later date
A number of measurement and maintenance operations are
required in order to monitor the reservoir and maintain the
means of production . This should be practicable without
having to resort to workover. It may also be advisable to
be able to carry out certain adaptations or modifications
according to the changing operate conditions without
having to pull out equipments.

1-3-2 Pay zone-borehole

connection: basic configurations
There are two main types of connections between the
pay zone and the borehole:
* open hole completion
* cased hole completion
Here we will only deal with the general criteria for choosing
between open hole and cased hole systems.
However, there are three essential points that should not be
forgotten:
The perforation method ( and the type of perforation )
used if cased hole completion is selected.
The sand control method ,should one be required.
The well stimulation method, if the problem arises.

 1 Open hole completion

The pay zone is drilled after a casing has been run in and
cemented at the top of the reservoir. It is left as is and
produces directly through the uncased height of the
borehole. This simple solution can not solve any
problems of borehole stability, or selectivity of fluid or
level to produced.
A variation on the system consists in placing a perforated
liner opposite the producing layer, thereby keeping the
borehole walls from caving in. Open hole completions
are used where there is only one zone which is either
very well consolidated or provided with open-hole gravel
packing for sand control. This is valid as long as there
are theoretically at least no interface problems.
Because of this, open hole completions are seldom
chosen for oil wells, but it may be suitable to gas well

Open hole completion

 2 Cased hole completions

After the pay zone has been drilled, a casing is run in and
cemented opposite the layer. Then it is perforated
opposite the zone that is to be produced in order to
restore a connection between the reservoir and the well.
The perforations will have to go through the casing and
the sheath of cement before they penetrate the formation
. The preceding drilling phase was stopped just above
the reservoir or at some distance above it and an
intermediate casing was then run in and cemented.
Cased hole completions are used when there are
interface problems and/or when there are several levels.
As a result, they are not only much more common, they
are the most widespread type of completion.

Cased hole completion

1-3-3 Main configurations of

production string
These configurations basically depend on the
number of levels due for production and whether
a production string is used (conventional
completion ) or not (tubeless completion ).
1 Single-zone completion
Single-zone completions with just a tubing and no
production packer are used when the only aim is
to have the right pipe diameter with respect to
the flow rate.

 2 Multiple-zone completions
In the past, the technique of producing
several levels together through the same
tubing was used. It required only a
minimum amount of equipment. However,
the subsequent reservoir and production
problems that were experienced have
caused this practice to become much less
common.

Parallel tubing string completion

 Here several levels are produced in the

same time but separately through different
strings of pipe. Double-zone completions
are the most common, but there can be
three, four and even more levels produced
separately . However, this significantly
complicates the equipment that needs to
be run into the well and especially makes
any work-over operations much more
complex.

Alternate selective completion

 Here the idea is to produce several levels in the

same well separately but one after the other
through the same tubing without having to resort
to work-over. Production alternates in fact and
wire-line techniques are used to change levels.
This type of completion is especially suited to a
situation where one of the two levels is a
secondary objective which would not warrant
drilling a well.
Parallel tubing sting and alternate selective
completion systems can be combined. For
example two parallel tubes, each equipped for
two levels in an alternate selective manner, can
produce four levels separately , provided that
only two are produced at the same time.

3.Tubingless completions

A tubeless completion uses no tubing, but production flows

through a cemented pipe instead. This rather unusual
type of completion, which will be covered only briefly
here, is mainly used in certain regions and only under
specific conditions. There are two kinds: single-zone and
multiple-zone tubeless completions. For single-zone
tubeless completions, production flows directly through a
casing, usually of large diameter. Wells that are big
producers of trouble-free fluids can be exploited in this
way with minimum pressure losses and the lowest
possible initial investment. This system is found in the
Middle East. For multiple-zone tubeless completions,
production flows directly through several casings whose
diameters may be very different from one another
depending on the production expected from each level.

Section 2 Connecting the pay zone

and the borehole
2-1.Drilling and casing the pay zone
The pay zone that is going to be produced is by nature
porous, permeable and contains fluids under pressure.
This means that the conditions for a blowout are all
present. As such, it is critical to be sure that the drilling
fluid in the well has sufficient density to counter the
reservoir pressure before starting this phase. Since the
pay zone formation pressure is high, so it to important to
maintain safety. In practice, at least for development
wells, the excess pressure is generally set at around 0.5
to 1.5 MPa.
When the pay zone is being drilled in, the drilling fluid must
be treated in order to remove fine-grained solids.

 Completion fluids
This is the term of the specific fluid that is used opposite the
pay zone, it is designed to cause the least damage possible
to the reservoir. it must be pumped into the well before the
formation is penetrated, whatever the configuration chosen
for the connection between the borehole and the pay zone.
This is particularly true and important for sandstone type
formations which do not react well to acid. It is often
difficulty to formulate a fluid which:
* does not damage the reservoir
* provides good characteristic with respect to drilling
The completion fluid is therefore used mainly:
* if possible or necessary as soon as the pay zone is
drilled in
*during initial completion
* to control the well
* during work-over, after the well has been produced, to
repair or modify the well

2-2 Perforating
2-2-1 The aim of perforating is to re-establish the
best possible connection between the pay zone
and the borehole when the chosen configuration
is cased hole. Although perforating was done
originally by bullets and even though in some
very special cases other techniques such as
hydraulic perforation may be advantageous,
today shaped charges are used almost
exclusively. An effective connection depends
largely on the perforation method and of the
type of support or gun.

 Main parameters affecting the productivity

of the zone produced by perforating
1.Number of effective perforations
A fact that is unfortunately often overlooked
is that the important thing is not the shot
density but the number of effective
perforations . Though there is a
relationship with the shot density, it is
mainly the conditions lf firing and cleaning
that are determining. Wells have been
known to have less than 1 to 10% of the
perforations effectively flowing.

 2 Distribution of perforations over the producing zone

(partial penetration effect )
This is also a fundamental parameter.
3. Perforation penetration
this parameter is mainly significant for a penetration of
less than 0.3 m, but much less so beyond this figure.
4. Number of shot direction
Going from one to two shot directions (located at 180)
raise the productivity index by about 20%. Beyond this,
(three [120],or four [90] shot directions), the increase is
only slight.
5.Perforation diameter
From a diameter of 6 mm (0.25m ) and above, this
parameter usually has little impact. However, it is
essential because of pressure loss.

2-2-2 Perforating methods and

corresponding types of guns
The choice of the method is the result of a
tradeoff between :
1.Well constraints (reservoir pressure, thickness,
porosity , permeability and homogeneity)
2.Optimum perforating conditions (which are not
necessarily compatible with one another)
3. TCP perforating ( Tubing Conveyed Perforator)
We will restrict discussion to the three most
conventional basic methods

 Under-balanced
pressure perforating
after equipment
installation
Perforations are made
after well equipment
has been run in and
once the production tree
has been installed, with
the well full of a light
fluid. The guns are run
into the well through the
tubing by means of an
electric cable through a
lubricator.

 Overbalanced pressure
perforating here a
large gun can be run
directly through the
casing with the
following advantages:
* large explosive loads
* Multiple shot directions
with close clearance
and consequently good
geometric
characteristics,
particularly penetration.

 3 TCP perforating (Tubing Conveyed Perforator)

Here the gun are run in directly with the tubing .
This method combines the advantages of the
first two since:
* large diameter guns can be run in
* they can be fired with under-balanced pressure
and with the permanent well equipment in place
if so desired.
Very ling stretches of casing can also be
perforated in one single operation , high shot
density can be used, considerable pressure
under-balance can be applied, the guns can be
run in highly deviated wells.

However, there are some drawbacks that are far

from negligible:
With permanent equipment in the well, if access
is required opposite the pay zone for wire-line
jobs it is necessary to release the gun after
shooting and let it fall to the bottom of the well.
This will entail extra costs because a trash
dump has to be drilled .
Charges temperature resistance and
performance decrease with time. Here, since
they are run on the tubing rather than with a
cable, a lot more time is required to get them to
the bottom of the well.
It is impossible to check that all the charges have
been fired except by pulling out the equipment.

2-2-3 Cleaning the perforation

The state of the perforations after firing mainly depends
on the method used for perforating and on the type of
the fluid in place in the well.
Laboratory studies have shown that:
* when perforating under-balanced in clean brine, the
perforations can be made to flow as soon as a pressure
differential is exerted. Moreover, there is only a small
reduction in the productivity index.
* In contrast, when perforating over-balanced, depending
on the type of fluid in the well and the exposure time, the
required reverse pressure may be several MPa and the
productivity index may be considerably reduced .

When cleaning is required after shooting, one of the

methods listed below is usually implemented.
1. Well cleaning
The well is made to flow through a large diameter choke so
that the perforations are exposed to maximum reverse
pressure. However, as soon as a few perforations start
flowing they limit the reverse pressure that can be
applied to others. It is more difficult to lower the
bottom-hole pressure and, as it actually becomes
lower, the pressure in the reservoir neat the well-bore
also tends to decrease. in addition, there would be a
risk of detaching fine particles from the matrix, not
being able to get them out of the formation and having
them plug up inter-pore connections especially in
insufficiently consolidated formations.

2 Back surging
This technique consists in using a temporary string
equipped with an atmospheric pressure chamber on the
lower end. By opening the lower valve, a considerable
negative pressure is applied almost immediately to all of
the perforations while the flow volume is restricted at the
same time.
3 Circulation washing with a washing tool
The perforations are cleaned by circulating from one to the
other beginning at the bottom by means of a tool
equipped with cups. The circulating flow rate is in the
range of several hundred liters per minute. The
technique is mainly used when gravel packing is due to
be installed later on for sand control. It is designed to
make sure that all the perforations are open, but the
circulating fluid and the fines that are stirred up may
damage the formation.

4. Acid washing
Acid is injected under pressure to restore the connection
between the formation and the well-bore. Acid is
pumped down to bottom either before final equipment
installation by using a temporary string or after it.
Conclusion
Whatever the cleaning method used, the perforations are
never 100% unplugged and the modifications brought
about by treatment may even promote plugging.
Additionally, each time that cleaning is undertaken with a
temporary string, temporary plugging agents may have
to be used afterwards to re-stabilize the well so that the
temporary string can be pulled out and the final
completion equipment can be run in.
As a result, when the formation itself is not badly plugged
up the best way of cleaning the perforations is to
perforate under under-balanced pressure conditions
after equipment installation to keep from damaging the
perforations.