Ferrous Metallurgy: The Chemistry and Structure of Iron and Steel

Ferrous Metallurgy:
The Chemistry and Structure

of Iron and Steel
Pure Iron
 Iron from which the residual carbon left
over from smelting has been removed
 In the pure state it is a very soft grey metal
 Of no commercial use
Wrought Iron
 Has approx 0.05% carbon
 Used since about 2000 BC
 Is stronger than most other pure metals.
 Made into weapons, armour, cooking pots
and vessels
 Main limitation to wider uses due to
processing (no way of making large items
and no welding)
Abraham Darby’s Iron bridge
Cast Iron
 Between 2% & 4% carbon content
 Standard grey cast iron very brittle due to
carbon rosettes in the structure acting as
stress-raisers
 Possible to use heat treatment to improve
the structure, this gives materials such as
ductile iron and malleable iron (black
heart)
Ductile iron used in drain grids
Grey cast iron
showing the
graphite flakes in a
pearlite matrix
Steel
0.001% to 1.7% carbon
Wide range of properties due to:
 Variation in carbon content
 Cold working
 Heat treatment
 Addition of alloying elements
Metals
Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals
Steels Cast Irons
Plain carbon steels Grey Iron
Low carbon steels White Iron
Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Irons
High carbon steels
Low alloy steels
High alloy steels

Stainless & Tool steels
Microstructure of Steel
Five main constituents:
 Ferrite
 Austenite
 Cementite
 Pearlite (Ferrite + cementite)
 Martensite (Directly Quenched from Austenite)
Ferrite (Pure (α-iron) Iron)
The structure of pure iron.
Has a body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal

structure. It is soft and ductile and imparts
these properties to the steel. Very little
carbon (less than 0.01% carbon will
dissolve in ferrite at room temperature).
Often known as  iron.
A photomicrograph of
0.1% carbon steel (mild
steel). The light areas are
ferrite.
Austenite
This is the structure of iron with Max 1.7 %
dissolved carbon at high temperatures
(over 912 deg C) has a face-centre cubic
(FCC) crystal structure. This material is
important in that it is the structure from
which other structures are formed when
the material cools from elevated
temperatures. Often known as  iron. Not
Existent at room temperatures.
Cementite
A compound of iron and carbon, iron
carbide (Fe3C).
It is hard and brittle and its presence in
steels causes an increase in hardness and
a reduction in ductility and toughness.
Pearlite
A laminated structure formed of alternate
layers of ferrite and cementite.
It combines the hardness and strength of
cementite with the ductility of ferrite and is
the key to the wide range of the properties
of steels. The laminar structure also acts
as a barrier to crack movement as in
composites. This gives it toughness.
Two-dimensional
view of pearlite,
consisting of
alternating layers of
cementite and ferrite.
Three-dimensional
analogy to the structure
of pearlite, i.e. the
cabbage represents a
single crystal of
pearlite, and the water
in the bucket the single
crystal of ferrite.
Martensite
A very hard needle-like structure of iron
and carbon.
Only formed by very rapid cooling from the
austenitic structure (i.e. above upper
critical temperature). Needs to be modified
by tempering before acceptable properties
reached.
The needle-like
structure of
martensite, the white
areas are retained
austenite.
Carbon
In steels none of the carbon is present as
free carbon. It is all dissolved in the iron as
part of the previously described structures.
0.1% Carbon Steel
Note the small
amount of pearlite in
the structure
Applications
A typical application
of low carbon steel in
a car body.
Effect of Carbon Content
Increasing the carbon content decreases the
amount of ferrite and increases the proportion of
pearlite in the structure.
0.2% Carbon Steel
Note the increased amount of

pearlite compared with the
0.1% ‘dead mild’ steel
Eutectic Structure
This leads to an increase in strength and
hardness and a reduction in ductility.
This continues until there is 0.8% carbon
at which point the structure is 100%
pearlite. This is known as a eutectic
structure.
Over 0.8% Carbon
As carbon content increases beyond
0.8%, no more pearlite can be formed.
The excess carbon forms cementite which
is deposited in between the pearlite grains.
This increases the hardness, but slightly
reduces the strength. The ductility of all
plain carbon steels over 0.8% carbon is
very low.
Properties of Carbon Steels
Carbon content Properties Applications
wt %
0.01 - 0.1 Soft, ductile, no useful Pressings where high
hardening by heat treatment formability required
except by normalizing, but can
be work-hardened. Weld able.
0.1 - 0.25 Strong, ductile, no useful General engineering uses
hardening by heat treatment for a mild steel
except by normalizing, but can
be work-hardened. Weld able.
Ductile-brittle transition
temperature is just below room
temperature
0.25 - 0.6 Very strong, heat treatable to Bars and forgings for a wide
produce a wide range of range of engineering
properties in quenched and components.
tempered conditions. Difficult Connecting rods,
to weld. Can become brittle springs, hammers, axle
below room temperature. shafts requiring
strength and
toughness.
Properties of Carbon Steels
Carbon content Properties Applications
wt %
0.6 - 0.9 Strong, whether heat treated or Used where maximum
not. Ductility lower when less strength rather than
carbon is present toughness is important.
Tools, wear resisting
components ( piano wire
and silver steels are in
this group).
0.9 - 2.0 Wear resistant and can be made Cutting tools like wood
very hard at expense of chisels, files, saw
toughness and ductility. Cannot blades.
be welded. Tend to be brittle if
the structure is not carefully
controlled

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Ferrous Metallurgy:

The Chemistry and Structure

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals

Steels Cast Irons

Plain carbon steels Grey Iron

Low carbon steels White Iron

Medium carbon steels Malleable & Ductile Irons

High carbon steels

Low alloy steels

High alloy steels

Has a body-centred cubic (BCC) crystal

Note the increased amount of

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