FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING

1. Overview of Welding Technology

2. The Weld Joint
3. Physics of Welding
4. Features of a Fusion Welded Joint
Joining and Assembly Distinguished

 Joining - welding, brazing, soldering,

and adhesive bonding
 These processes form a permanent joint
between parts

 Assembly - mechanical methods

(usually) of fastening parts together
 Some of these methods allow for easy
disassembly, while others do not
 Welding
 Joining process in which two (or more) parts
are coalesced at their contacting surfaces by
application of heat and/or pressure
 Many welding processes are accomplished by
heat alone, with no pressure applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure
 Still others by pressure alone with no external
heat
 In some welding processes a filler material is
added to facilitate coalescence
 Why Welding is Important
 Provides a permanent joint
 Welded components become a single entity

 Usually the most economical way to join parts

in terms of material usage and fabrication costs
 Mechanical fastening usually requires additional
hardware components (e.g., screws and nuts) and
geometric alterations of the parts being assembled
(e.g., holes)

 Not restricted to a factory environment

 Welding can be accomplished "in the field"
Limitations and Drawbacks of Welding
 Most welding operations are performed
manually and are expensive in terms of labor
cost
 Most welding processes utilize high energy and
are inherently dangerous
 Welded joints do not allow for convenient
disassembly
 Welded joints can have quality defects that are
difficult to detect
 Faying Surfaces in Welding
 The part surfaces in contact or close proximity
that are being joined
 Welding involves localized coalescence of the
two metallic parts at their faying surfaces
 Welding is usually performed on parts made of
the same metal
 However, some welding operations can be
used to join dissimilar metals
 Types of Welding Processes
 Some 50 different types of welding processes
have been catalogued by the American
Welding Society (AWS)
 Welding processes can be divided into two
major categories:
 Fusion welding
 Solid state welding
 Fusion Welding
 Joining processes that melt the base metals

 In many fusion welding operations, a filler

metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate
the process and provide bulk and added
strength to the welded joint

 A fusion welding operation in which no filler

metal is added is called an autogenous weld
Some Fusion Welding Processes
 Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is
accomplished by electric arc
 Resistance welding (RW) - melting is
accomplished by heat from resistance to an
electrical current between faying surfaces held
together under pressure
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) - melting is
accomplished by an oxyfuel gas such as
acetylene
 Arc Welding

Figure 8.1: A manual arc

welding operation
 Solid State Welding
 Joining processes in which coalescence results
from application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure
 If heat is used, temperature is below melting
point of metals being welded
 No filler metal is added in solid state welding
Some Solid State Welding Processes
 Diffusion welding (DFW) –coalescence is by
solid state fusion between two surfaces held
together under pressure at elevated
temperature
 Friction welding (FRW) - coalescence by heat
of friction between two surfaces
 Ultrasonic welding (USW) - coalescence by
ultrasonic oscillating motion in a direction
parallel to contacting surfaces of two parts held
together under pressure
Principal Applications of Welding
 Construction - buildings and bridges
 Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage
tanks
 Shipbuilding
 Aircraft and aerospace
 Automotive
 Railroad
 Welder and Fitter
 Welder - manually controls path or placement
of welding gun
 Often assisted by second worker, called a fitter,
who arranges the parts prior to welding
 Welding fixtures and positioners are used to
assist in this function
 The Safety Issue
 Welding is inherently dangerous to human
workers
 High temperatures of molten metals
 In gas welding, fuels (e.g., acetylene) are a
fire hazard
 Many welding processes use electrical
power, so electrical shock is a hazard
 Special Hazards in Arc Welding
 Ultraviolet radiation emitted in arc welding is
injurious to human vision
 Welder must wear a special helmet with a
dark viewing window
 Filters out dangerous radiation but
welder is blind except when arc is struck
 Sparks, spatters of molten metal, smoke, and
fumes add to the risks
 Ventilation needed to exhaust dangerous
fumes from fluxes and molten metals
 Automation in Welding
 Because of the hazards of manual welding,
and to increase productivity and improve
quality, various forms of mechanization and
automation are used
 Machine welding – mechanized welding
under supervision and control of human
operator
 Automatic welding – equipment performs
welding without operator control
 Robotic welding - automatic welding
implemented by industrial robot
 The Weld Joint
The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that
have been joined by welding
 Two issues about weld joints:
 Types of joints
 Types of welds used to join the pieces that
form the joints
 Five Types of Joints
1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint
 Butt Joint

Parts lie in same plane and are joined at their

edges

Figure 8.2 Five basic

types of joints: (a) butt
 Corner Joint

Parts in a corner
joint form a right
angle and are joined
at the corner of the
angle

Figure 8.2 (b) corner

 Lap Joint

Consists of two
overlapping parts

Figure 8.2 (c) lap

 Tee Joint

One part is
perpendicular to the
other in the
approximate shape of
the letter "T"

Figure 8.2 (d) tee

 Edge Joint

Parts in an edge joint

are parallel with at
least one of their
edges in common,
and the joint is made
at the common
edge(s)

Figure 8.2 (e) edge

 Fillet Weld
 Used to fill in the edges of plates created by
corner, lap, and tee joints
 Filler metal used to provide cross section in
approximate shape of a right triangle
 Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel
welding
 Requires minimum edge preparation
 Fillet Welds

Figure 8.3 Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside

single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner
joint; (c) double fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee
joint. Dashed lines show the original part edges.
 Groove Welds
 Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a
groove to facilitate weld penetration
 Edge preparation increases cost of parts
fabrication
 Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U,
and J, in single or double sides
 Most closely associated with butt joints
 Groove Welds
Figure 8.4 Some groove welds: (a) square groove weld, one
side; (b) single bevel groove weld; (c) single V-groove weld;
(d) single U-groove weld; (e) single J-groove weld; (f) double
V-groove weld for thicker sections. Dashed lines show
original part edges.
 Spot Weld
Fused section between surfaces of two plates
 Used for lap joints
 Closely associated with resistance welding

Figure 8.5 (a)

Spot weld
 PUZZLE TIME!.. Take a rest..

What can you put into a wooden box that would make it
lighter? The more of them you put in the lighter it
becomes, yet the box stays empty.

Holes
 Physics of Welding
 Fusion is most common means of achieving
coalescence in welding
 To accomplish fusion, a source of high density
heat energy must be supplied to the faying
surfaces, so the resulting temperatures cause
localized melting of base metals (and filler
metal, if used)
 For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt
the metal with minimum energy but high heat
densities
 Power Density
Power transferred to work per unit surface area,
W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)
 If power density is too low, heat is conducted
into work, so melting never occurs
 If power density too high, localized
temperatures vaporize metal in affected region
 There is a practical range of values for heat
density within which welding can be performed
Comparisons Among Welding Processes
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) develops large
amounts of heat, but heat density is relatively
low because heat is spread over a large area
 Oxyacetylene gas, the hottest of the OFW
fuels, burns at a top temperature of around
3500C (6300F)
 Arc welding produces high energy over a
smaller area, resulting in local temperatures of
5500 to 6600C (10,000 to 12,000F)
Power Densities for Welding Processes

Welding process W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)

Oxyfuel 10 (6)
Arc 50 (30)
Resistance 1,000 (600)

Laser beam 9,000 (5,000)

Electron beam 10,000 (6,000)

 Power Density
 Power entering surface divided by
corresponding surface area:
P
PD 
A
where PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2);
P = power entering surface, W (Btu/sec); and A
= surface area over which energy is entering,
mm2 (in2)
 Unit Energy for Melting

 Quantity of heat required to melt a unit

volume of metal
 Symbolized Um
 It is the sum of:
 Heat to raise temperature of solid metal
to melting point
 Depends on volumetric specific heat

 Heat to transform metal from solid to

liquid phase at melting point
 Depends on heat of fusion
Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Welding
 Not all of the input energy is used to melt the
weld metal
1. Heat transfer efficiency f1 - actual heat
received by workpiece divided by total heat
generated at source
2. Melting efficiency f2 - proportion of heat
received at work surface used for melting;
the rest is conducted into work metal
 Heat Available for Welding

Hw = f1 f2 H

where Hw = net heat available for welding; f1 =

heat transfer efficiency; f2 = melting efficiency;
and H = total heat generated by welding
process
 Heat Transfer Efficiency f1
 Proportion of heat received at work surface
relative to total heat generated at source
 Depends on welding process and capacity to
convert power source (e.g., electrical energy)
into usable heat at work surface
 Oxyfuel gas welding processes are
relatively inefficient
 Arc welding processes are relatively efficient
 Melting Efficiency f2
 Proportion of heat received at work surface
used for melting; the rest is conducted into the
work
 Depends on welding process but also
influenced by thermal properties of metal, joint
configuration, and work thickness
 Metals with high thermal conductivity, such
as aluminum and copper, present a problem
in welding because of the rapid dissipation
of heat away from the heat contact area
 Energy Balance Equation
 Net heat energy into welding operation equals
heat energy required to melt the volume of
metal welded
Hw = Um V

where Hw = net heat energy delivered to

operation, J (Btu); Um = unit energy required to
melt the metal, J/mm3 (Btu/in3); and V =
volume of metal melted, mm3 (in3)
Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Figure 8.6 Cross section of a typical fusion welded

joint: (a) principal zones in the joint, and (b) typical
grain structure.
Features of Fusion Welded Joint
Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has
been added consists of:
 Fusion zone
 Weld interface
 Heat affected zone (HAZ)
 Unaffected base metal zone
 Heat Affected Zone
 Metal has experienced temperatures below
melting point, but high enough to cause
microstructural changes in the solid metal
 Chemical composition same as base metal, but
this region has been heat treated so that its
properties and structure have been altered
 Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ is
usually negative, and it is here that welding
failures often occur
 PUZZLE TIME!.. Take a rest..

I went into a shop and this is how the conversation went:

Wiseman: “How much does it cost for one?”
Assistant: “£2″
Wiseman: “And how much for 10?”
Assistant: “£4″
Wiseman: “How much for 100?”
Assistant”£6, baldy”
What was I buying?

House numbers
 WELDING PROCESSES
1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
7. Weldability
8. Design Considerations in Welding
Two Categories of Welding Processes
 Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished
by melting the two parts to be joined, in some
cases adding filler metal to the joint
 Examples: arc welding, resistance spot
welding, oxyfuel gas welding
 Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are
used to achieve coalescence, but no melting of
base metals occurs and no filler metal is added
 Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding,
friction welding
 Arc Welding (AW)
 A fusion welding process in which coalescence
of the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the work
 Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough
to melt any metal
 Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
 What is an Electric Arc?
 An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit
 It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
 To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance
 Arc Welding
 A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip,
and as electrode is moved along joint, molten weld
pool solidifies in its wake

Figure 8.7 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Manual Arc Welding and Arc Time
 Problems with manual welding:
 Weld joint quality
 Productivity
 Arc Time = (time arc is on) divided by (hours
worked)
 Also called “arc-on time”
 Manual welding arc time = 20%
 Machine welding arc time ~ 50%
Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes
 Consumable – consumed during welding
process
 Source of filler metal in arc welding
 Nonconsumable – not consumed during
welding process
 Filler metal must be added separately
 Consumable Electrodes
 Forms of consumable electrodes
 Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18
inches and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and
must be changed frequently
 Weld wire can be continuously fed from
spools with long lengths of wire, avoiding
frequent interruptions
 In both rod and wire forms, electrode is
consumed by arc and added to weld joint as
filler metal
 Nonconsumable Electrodes
 Made of tungsten which resists melting
 Gradually depleted during welding
(vaporization is principal mechanism)
 Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate
wire fed into weld pool
 Arc Shielding
 At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen in air
 Mechanical properties of joint can be
seriously degraded by these reactions
 To protect operation, arc must be shielded
from surrounding air in AW processes
 Arc shielding is accomplished by:
 Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
 Flux
 Flux
 A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal
 Provides protective atmosphere for welding
 Stabilizes arc
 Reduces spattering
Various Flux Application Methods
 Pouring granular flux onto welding operation
 Stick electrode coated with flux material that
melts during welding to cover operation
 Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in
the core and released as electrode is
consumed
 Power Source in Arc Welding
 Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)
 AC machines less expensive to purchase
and operate, but generally restricted to
ferrous metals
 DC equipment can be used on all metals
and is generally noted for better arc control
Consumable Electrode AW Processes
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding
 Electrogas Welding
 Submerged Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler
metal rod coated with chemicals that provide
flux and shielding
 Sometimes called "stick welding"
 Power supply, connecting cables, and
electrode holder available for a few thousand
dollars
Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Figure 8.8 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

 Welding Stick in SMAW
 Composition of filler metal usually close to
base metal
 Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with
oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients,
held together by a silicate binder
 Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder
connected to power source
 Disadvantages of stick welding:
 Sticks must be periodically changed
 High current levels may melt coating
prematurely
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Figure 8.9 Shielded

metal arc welding (stick
welding) performed by a
(human) welder (photo
courtesy of Hobart
Brothers Co.).
 SMAW Applications
 Used for steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, and certain nonferrous alloys
 Not used or rarely used for aluminum
and its alloys, copper alloys, and
titanium
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 Uses a consumable bare metal wire as
electrode and shielding accomplished by
flooding arc with a gas
 Wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun
 Shielding gases include inert gases such as
argon and helium for aluminum welding, and
active gases such as CO2 for steel welding
 Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead - no need for
manual grinding and cleaning of slag
 Gas Metal Arc Welding

8.10 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

GMAW Advantages over SMAW
 Better arc time because of continuous wire
electrode
 Sticks must be periodically changed in
SMAW
 Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
 End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
 Higher deposition rates
 Eliminates problem of slag removal
 Can be readily automated
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
 Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to
overcome limitations of stick electrodes
 Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing
(in coils) containing flux and other ingredients
(e.g., alloying elements) in its core
 Two versions:
 Self-shielded FCAW - core includes
compounds that produce shielding gases
 Gas-shielded FCAW - uses externally
applied shielding gases
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Figure 8.11 Flux-cored arc welding. Presence or absence of

externally supplied shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1)
self-shielded, in which core provides ingredients for shielding, and
(2) gas-shielded, which uses external shielding gases.
 Electrogas Welding (EGW)
 Uses a continuous consumable electrode,
either flux-cored wire or bare wire with
externally supplied shielding gases, and
molding shoes to contain molten metal
 When flux-cored electrode wire is used and no
external gases are supplied, then special case
of self-shielded FCAW
 When a bare electrode wire used with shielding
gases from external source, then special case
of GMAW
 Electrogas Welding

Figure 8.12 Electrogas welding using flux-cored electrode wire:

(a) front view with molding shoe removed for clarity, and (b)
side view showing molding shoes on both sides.
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
 Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding provided by a
cover of granular flux
 Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
 Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of
arc by gravity from a hopper
 Completely submerges operation,
preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged Arc Welding

Figure 8.13 Submerged arc welding.

 SAW Applications and Products
 Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,
I-beams)
 Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels
 Welded components for heavy machinery
 Most steels (except hi C steel)
 Not good for nonferrous metals
Nonconsumable Electrode Processes
 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
 Plasma Arc Welding
 Carbon Arc Welding
 Stud Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
 Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode
and an inert gas for arc shielding
 Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
 A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
 In Europe, called "WIG welding"
 Used with or without a filler metal
 When filler metal used, it is added to
weld pool from separate rod or wire
 Applications: aluminum and stainless steel
most common
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Figure 8.14 Gas tungsten arc welding.

Advantages / Disadvantages of GTAW
Advantages:
 High quality welds for suitable applications
 No spatter because no filler metal through
arc
 Little or no post-weld cleaning because no
flux
Disadvantages:
 Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
 Special form of GTAW in which a constricted
plasma arc is directed at weld area
 Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle
that focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas
(argon) into arc region to form a high velocity,
intensely hot plasma arc stream
 Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C
(50,000F), due to constriction of arc,
producing a plasma jet of small diameter and
very high energy density
 Plasma Arc Welding

Figure 8.15 Plasma arc welding (PAW).

Advantages / Disadvantages of PAW
Advantages:
 Good arc stability
 Better penetration control than other AW
 High travel speeds
 Excellent weld quality
 Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Larger torch size than other AW
 Tends to restrict access in some joints
 Resistance Welding (RW)
 A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence
 Heat generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at junction to be welded
 Principal RW process is resistance spot
welding (RSW)
 Resistance Welding

Figure 8.16 Resistance

welding, showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW
group.
Components in Resistance Spot Welding
 Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
 Two opposing electrodes
 Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
 Power supply from which a controlled current
can be applied for a specified time duration
Advantages / Drawbacks of RW
Advantages:
 No filler metal required
 High production rates possible
 Lends itself to mechanization and automation
 Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
 Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:
 High initial equipment cost
 Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
 Resistance welding process in which fusion of
faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes
 Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of
spot welds
 Widely used in mass production of
automobiles, appliances, metal furniture, and
other products made of sheet metal
 Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
 Annual production of automobiles in the
world is measured in tens of millions of units
 Spot Welding Cycle

Figure 8.17 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force & current
in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close,
force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
 Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce
a series of overlapping spot welds along
lap joint
 Can produce air-tight joints
 Applications:
 Gasoline tanks
 Automobile mufflers
 Various other sheet metal containers
 Resistance Seam Welding

Figure 8.18 Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
 A resistance welding process in which
coalescence occurs at one or more small
contact points on parts
 Contact points determined by design of parts to
be joined
 May consist of projections, embossments,
or localized intersections of parts
 Resistance Projection Welding

Figure 8.19 Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) start of operation,

contact between parts is at projections; (2) when current is applied,
weld nuggets similar to spot welding are formed at the projections.
Cross-Wire Welding

Figure 8.20 (b) cross-wire welding.

 Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
 Group of fusion welding operations that burn
various fuels mixed with oxygen
 OFW employs several types of gases, which is
the primary distinction among the members of
this group
 Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting
torches to cut and separate metal plates and
other parts
 Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature
flame from combustion of acetylene and
oxygen
 Flame is directed by a welding torch
 Filler metal is sometimes added
 Composition must be similar to base metal
 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean
surfaces and prevent oxidation
 Oxyacetylene Welding

Figure 8.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

 Acetylene (C2H2)
 Most popular fuel among OFW group because
it is capable of higher temperatures than any
other - up to 3480C (6300F)
 Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and
oxygen:
 First stage reaction (inner cone of flame):
C2H2 + O2  2CO + H2 + heat
 Second stage reaction (outer envelope):
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2  2CO2 + H2O + heat
 Oxyacetylene Torch
 Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner
cone, while outer envelope spreads out and
shields work surfaces from atmosphere

Figure 8.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved.
 Safety Issue in OAW
 Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly
flammable
 C2H2 is colorless and odorless
 It is therefore processed to have
characteristic garlic odor
 Alternative Gases for OFW
 Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
 Hydrogen
 Propylene
 Propane
 Natural Gas
 PUZZLE TIME!.. Take a rest..
make 3 others correct equations from the following
equation by moving just one matchstick
Other Fusion Welding Processes
FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,
resistance, or oxyfuel welding
 Use unique technologies to develop heat for
melting
 Applications are typically unique
 Processes include:
 Electron beam welding
 Laser beam welding
 Electroslag welding
 Thermit welding
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Fusion welding process in which heat for welding
is provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity
stream of electrons striking work surface
 Electron beam gun operates at:
 High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to
accelerate electrons
 Beam currents are low (measured in
milliamps)
 Power density is high in EBW
 EBW Vacuum Chamber
When first developed, EBW had to be carried out
in vacuum chamber to minimize disruption of
electron beam by air molecules
 Serious inconvenience in production
 Pumpdown time can take as long as an hour
 Three Vacuum Levels in EBW
 High-vacuum welding – welding done in
same vacuum chamber as beam generation
 Highest quality weld
 Medium-vacuum welding – welding done in
separate chamber with partial vacuum
 Vacuum pump-down time reduced
 Non-vacuum welding – welding done at or
near atmospheric pressure, with work
positioned close to electron beam generator
 Vacuum divider required to separate work
from beam generator
EBW Advantages / Disadvantages

Advantages:
 High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
 Limited heat affected zone, low thermal
distortion
 High welding speeds
 No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages:
 High equipment cost
 Precise joint preparation & alignment required
 Vacuum chamber required
 Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
 Fusion welding process in which coalescence
is achieved by energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam focused on joint
 Laser = "light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation"
 LBW normally performed with shielding gases
to prevent oxidation
 Filler metal not usually added
 High power density in small area, so LBW often
used for small parts
 Comparison: LBW vs. EBW
 No vacuum chamber required for LBW
 No x-rays emitted in LBW
 Laser beams can be focused and directed by
optical lenses and mirrors
 LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth-to-width ratios of EBW
 Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in),
whereas EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in)
 Thermit Welding (TW)
 FW process in which heat for coalescence is
produced by superheated molten metal from
the chemical reaction of thermite
 Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine
powders that produce an exothermic reaction
when ignited
 Also used for incendiary bombs
 Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
 Process used for joining, but has more in
common with casting than welding
 Thermit Welding

Figure 8.23 Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped,
superheated metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce
weld joint.
 TW Applications
 Joining of railroad rails
 Repair of cracks in large steel castings and
forgings
 Weld surface is often smooth enough that no
finishing is required
 Solid State Welding (SSW)
 Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:
 Pressure alone, or
 Heat and pressure
 If both heat and pressure are used, heat

is not enough to melt work surfaces

 For some SSW processes, time is also a
factor
 No filler metal is added
 Each SSW process has its own way of creating
a bond at the faying surfaces
 Success Factors in SSW
 Essential factors for a successful solid state
weld are that the two faying surfaces must be:
 Very clean
 In very close physical contact with each
other to permit atomic bonding
SSW Advantages over FW Processes
 If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so
metal around joint retains original properties
 Many SSW processes produce welded joints
that bond the entire contact interface between
two parts rather than at distinct spots or seams
 Some SSW processes can be used to bond
dissimilar metals, without concerns about
relative melting points, thermal expansions,
and other problems that arise in FW
 Solid State Welding Processes
 Forge welding
 Cold welding
 Roll welding
 Hot pressure welding
 Diffusion welding
 Explosion welding
 Friction welding
 Ultrasonic welding
 Forge Welding
 Welding process in which components to be
joined are heated to hot working temperature
range and then forged together by hammering
or similar means
 Historic significance in development of
manufacturing technology
 Process dates from about 1000 B.C., when
blacksmiths learned to weld two pieces of
metal
 Of minor commercial importance today except
for its variants
 Cold Welding (CW)
SSW process done by applying high pressure
between clean contacting surfaces at room
temperature
 Cleaning usually done by degreasing and wire
brushing immediately before joining
 No heat is applied, but deformation raises work
temperature
 At least one of the metals, preferably both,
must be very ductile
 Soft aluminum and copper suited to CW
 Applications: making electrical connections
 Roll Welding (ROW)
SSW process in which pressure sufficient to
cause coalescence is applied by means of
rolls, either with or without external heat
 Variation of either forge welding or cold
welding, depending on whether heating of
workparts is done prior to process
 If no external heat, called cold roll welding
 If heat is supplied, hot roll welding
 Roll Welding

Figure 8.24 Roll welding (ROW).

 Roll Welding Applications
 Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy
steel for corrosion resistance
 Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
 "Sandwich" coins for U.S mint
 Diffusion Welding (DFW)
SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in
a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for
diffusion and coalescence to occur
 Temperatures  0.5 Tm
 Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
 Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state
diffusion
 Limitation: time required for diffusion can range
from seconds to hours
 DFW Applications
 Joining of high-strength and refractory metals
in aerospace and nuclear industries
 Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar
metals
 For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of
different metal is often sandwiched between
base metals to promote diffusion
 Explosion Welding (EXW)
SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two
metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a
detonated explosive
 No filler metal used
 No external heat applied
 No diffusion occurs - time is too short
 Bonding is metallurgical, combined with
mechanical interlocking that results from a
rippled or wavy interface between the metals
 Explosive Welding

Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals,

in particular to clad one metal on top of a
base metal over large areas
Figure 8.25 Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the
parallel configuration, and (2) during detonation of the
explosive charge.
 Friction Welding (FRW)
SSW process in which coalescence is achieved
by frictional heat combined with pressure
 When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces
 No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally
used
 Process yields a narrow HAZ
 Can be used to join dissimilar metals
 Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production
 Friction Welding

Figure 8.26 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2)
parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation
stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
 Two Types of Friction Welding
1. Continuous-drive friction welding
 One part is driven at constant rpm
against stationary part to cause friction
heat at interface
 At proper temperature, rotation is
stopped and parts are forced together
2. Inertia friction welding
 Rotating part is connected to flywheel,
which is brought up to required speed
 Flywheel is disengaged from drive, and
parts are forced together
Applications / Limitations of FRW
Applications:
 Shafts and tubular parts
 Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm
equipment, petroleum and natural gas
Limitations:
 At least one of the parts must be rotational
 Flash must usually be removed
 Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must
be taken into consideration in product design)
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
 Two components are held together, oscillatory
shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are
applied to interface to cause coalescence
 Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface
films to allow intimate contact and strong
metallurgical bonding between surfaces
 Although heating of surfaces occurs,
temperatures are well below Tm
 No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases
 Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials
such as aluminum and copper
 Ultrasonic Welding

Figure 8.27 Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general setup for a

lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area.
 USW Applications
 Wire terminations and splicing in electrical
and electronics industry
 Eliminates need for soldering
 Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels
 Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels
 Assembly of small parts in automotive
industry
 Weld Quality

Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld

joint that is strong and absent of defects,
and the methods of inspecting and testing
the joint to assure its quality
 Topics:
 Residual stresses and distortion
 Welding defects
 Inspection and testing methods
Residual Stresses and Distortion
 Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions
during FW result in thermal expansion and
contraction that cause residual stresses
 These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and
warpage
 Situation in welding is complicated because:
 Heating is very localized
 Melting of base metals in these regions
 Location of heating and melting is in motion
(at least in AW)
Techniques to Minimize Warpage
 Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts
 Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
 Tack welding at multiple points along joint to
create a rigid structure prior to seam welding
 Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount
of filler metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage
 Preheating base parts
 Stress relief heat treatment of welded
assembly
 Proper design of weldment