CH 1
CH 1
CH 1
(MaEng4192)
CHAPTER – ONE
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
For AW processes that utilize non-consumable electrodes, any filler metal used in the
operation must be supplied by means of a separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.
Arc Shielding at the high temperatures in AW, the metals being joined are chemically
reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the air.
The mechanical properties of the weld joint can be degraded by these reactions. Thus,
protection the arc from the surrounding air is provided in all AW processes.
Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc, and molten
weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit exposure of the
weld metal to air.
Common shielding gases include argon and helium, both of which are inert. In
the ferrous metals welding, oxygen and carbon dioxide are used, usually in
combination with Ar and/or He, to produce an oxidizing atmosphere or to
control weld shape.
A flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides and other
unwanted Contaminants or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts and becomes a liquid slag, covering the
operation and protecting the molten weld metal. The slag hardens upon cooling
and must be removed later by Chipping or brushing.
• Flux is formulated to serve several functions:
• (1) provide a protective atmosphere for welding,
• (2) stabilize the arc, and
• (3) reduce splattering.
The method of flux application differs for each process. The delivery
techniques include:
(1) pouring granular flux onto the welding operation,
(2) using a stick electrode coated with flux material in which the coating melts
during welding to cover the operation, and
(3) using tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the core and released
as the electrode is consumed.
Power Source in Arc Welding both Direct Current (DC) and Alternating
Current(AC) are used.
AC machines are less expensive to purchase and operate, but are generally
restricted to welding of ferrous metals.
DC equipment can be used on all metals with good results and is generally
noted for better arc control.
Resistance Welding (RW) is A group of fusion welding processes that
uses a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence(joining)
.
Oxyfuel gas welding is a Group of fusion welding operations that burn
various fuels mixed with oxygen.
Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate metal
plates and other parts
Solid state welding
(a) Inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double
fillet lap joint; (d) double fillet tee joint (dashed lines show the original part edges).
Types of Welds
2. Groove Welds
(a) Square groove weld, one side; (b) single bevel groove weld;
(c) single V-groove weld; (d) single U-groove weld; (e) single J-
groove weld; (f) double V-groove weld for thicker sections
(dashed lines show original part edges).
Types of Welds
3. Plug Weld and Slot Weld
(a) Flange weld and (b) surfacing weld used not to join
parts but to deposit filler metal onto surface of a base part.
Arc Welding Positions
• Welding positions defined here for groove
welds:
(a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d)
overhead
Welding variables
Properly maintaining welding variables is critical to establishing high weld
quality in any operation.
Many companies put welding procedures in place that define the recommended
parameters to help create consistency among welders and parts
1. Welding Amperage
Welding amperage refers to the amount and speed of electricity flowing in a
circuit, which affects the heat available to melt the welding wire and the base
material.
It is directly correlated to wire feed speed (WFS): the speed and volume of
filler metal going into the weld.
When WFS increases, so does the welding amperage; when it decreases, so
does the amperage.
This correlation, in turn, affects weld penetration.
Higher amperage settings yield greater joint penetration while lower amperage
settings provide less.
2. Wire Feed Speed (WFS)
In addition to being directly correlated to amperage, WFS also affects welding
transfer modes.
Higher WFS and voltage moves the process into a globular mode where large
droplets of wire transfer across the arc to the weld pool.
Increasing WFS (and therefore, amperage) and voltage allows for the use of a
spray transfer mode.
Increasing WFS also provides higher deposition rates: the amount of filler metal
added to a weld joint in a given period of time
Lower WFS and voltage keeps the process in the range for short-circuit welding,
in which the wire touches the base material and shorts from the contact that
transfers the metal.
3. Welding Voltage
Voltage refers to the electrical pressure that causes amperage to flow within the
welding circuit.
It is directly responsible for adjusting arc length.
Higher welding voltage equals a longer arc
Welding voltage affects the final weld in a variety of ways. If it is too high, the
result will be a flatter bead and a concave weld profile.
Voltage that is too high also can lead to undercut or a groove in the base
material near the weld toe that isn’t filled with weld metal.
If welding voltage is too low, it can cause cold lap—a defect that occurs when
the filler metal doesn’t fully fuse with the base material at the weld’s toes.
4. Travel Speed
Travel speed simply refers to how fast the arc moves along the weld joint,
measured in inches per minute (IPM).
Because changes in travel speed affect heat input, it’s important to take care
when welding heat-sensitive materials, like aluminum.
Welding faster will reduce heat input and prevent issues like burn through.
Multi pass welding on thick materials may require slower travel speeds to fill
each pass and support good grain refinement.
Travel speeds that are too slow can lead to too much heat, a wide weld bead
and poor penetration, while traveling too fast creates a narrow weld with
insufficient weld toe tie-in.
5.. Shielding Gas
Shielding gas, whether argon or carbon dioxide (CO2) - the most commonly
used - has an impact on weld characteristics and welding performance.
One hundred percent CO2 shielding gas provides deep joint penetration on
thicker material, but it does tend to have less arc stability and generate higher
levels of spatter.
Adding argon to CO2 helps create aesthetically pleasing welds with less spatter.
Shielding gas mixture with high levels of argon creates welds with higher tensile
and yield strengths but lower ductility.
High levels of CO2 in the mixture improve ductility and crack resistance but
decrease tensile and yield strengths.
Just as voltage and WFS affect welding transfer modes, so too does shielding
gas.
Welding metallurgy
Welding metallurgy describes a microcosm of metallurgical processes occurring
in and around a weld that influence the microstructure, properties, and
weldability of the material
Due to the rapid heating and cooling rates associated with most welding
processes, metallurgical reactions often occur under transient, non-equilibrium
conditions
Microstructure and Properties
Physics of Welding
Fusion is most common means of achieving coalescence in welding.
If power density is too low, heat is conducted into work, so melting never
occurs.
There is a practical range of values for heat density within which welding
can be performed.
Power density
Power entering surface divided by corresponding surface
area:
where
Hw = Um V
⚫ below melting but has substantial microstructural change though has the same chemical
composition as base metal (heat treating) usually degradation in mechanical properties
happen.