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CH 1

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RAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING


WELDING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

(MaEng4192)

CHAPTER – ONE

FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING

LECTURE DELIVERED BY:


1
Welding
“Welding is a process by which two materials, usually metals, are permanently
joined together by coalescence, which is induced by a combination of
temperature, pressure, and metallurgical conditions.”
or
The AWS definition for a welding process Is “A materials joining process which
produces coalescence of materials by heating them to suitable temperatures with
or without the application of pressure or by the application of pressure alone and
with or without the use of filler material".
Filler (if used) has a melting temperature similar to the parts being joined
(base metal)

The particular combination of these variables can range from high


temperature with no pressure to high pressure with no increase in temperature.
Cont…

Welding (positive process)


Machining (negative process)
Forming, casting (zero process)
Requirement for a high quality welding

A source of satisfactory heat and/or pressure,

A means of protecting or cleaning the metal, and

Caution to avoid(care taken to avoid danger or risk), or


compensate for harmful metallurgical effects.
TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES
Welding processes divide into two major categories:
1) Fusion welding, in which coalescence is accomplished by melting the
two parts to be joined, in some cases adding filler metal to the joint; and
2) Solid-state welding, in which heat and/or pressure are used to achieve
coalescence, but no melting of the base metals occurs and no filler metal is
added.
Fusion welding is the more important category. It includes:
1) Arc welding,
2) Resistance welding,
3) Oxy-fuel gas welding
1. Arc welding (AW) is a fusion-welding process in which coalescence of the
metals is achieved by the heat of an electric arc between an electrode and the
work.
Movement of the electrode relative to the work is accomplished by either a
human welder (manual welding) or by mechanical means (i.e., machine
welding, automatic welding, or robotic welding).
One of the trouble some aspects of manual arc welding is that the quality of the
weld joint depends on the skill and work ethic of the human welder.
2. Resistance Welding (RW) is A group of fusion welding processes that uses a
combination of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence(joining) .
3. Oxyfuel gas welding is a Group of fusion welding operations that burn various
fuels mixed with oxygen.
Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate metal
plates and other parts
Electrodes used in AW processes are classified as Consumable or Non-
consumable.
a. Consumable electrodes provide the source of the filler metal in arc welding.
These electrodes are available in two principal forms: rods (also called sticks)
and wire.
Welding rods are typically 225 to 450 mm long and 9.5 mm or less in diameter.
The problem with consumable welding rods, at least in production welding
operations, is that they must be changed periodically, reducing arc time of the
welder.
The advantage that it can be continuously fed in to the weld pool from spools
containing long lengths of wire, thus avoiding the frequent interruptions that
occur when using welding sticks. In both rod and wire forms, the electrode is
consumed by the arc during the welding process and added to the weld joint as
filler metal.
b. Non-consumable electrodes are made of tungsten (or carbon, rarely), which resists
melting by the arc. non-consumable electrode is gradually depleted during the
welding process, similar to the gradual wearing of a cutting tool in a machining
operation.

 For AW processes that utilize non-consumable electrodes, any filler metal used in the
operation must be supplied by means of a separate wire that is fed into the weld pool.

Arc Shielding at the high temperatures in AW, the metals being joined are chemically
reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the air.

The mechanical properties of the weld joint can be degraded by these reactions. Thus,
protection the arc from the surrounding air is provided in all AW processes.
Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc, and molten
weld pool with a blanket of gas or flux, or both, which inhibit exposure of the
weld metal to air.
Common shielding gases include argon and helium, both of which are inert. In
the ferrous metals welding, oxygen and carbon dioxide are used, usually in
combination with Ar and/or He, to produce an oxidizing atmosphere or to
control weld shape.
A flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides and other
unwanted Contaminants or to dissolve them and facilitate removal.
During welding, the flux melts and becomes a liquid slag, covering the
operation and protecting the molten weld metal. The slag hardens upon cooling
and must be removed later by Chipping or brushing.
• Flux is formulated to serve several functions:
• (1) provide a protective atmosphere for welding,
• (2) stabilize the arc, and
• (3) reduce splattering.
The method of flux application differs for each process. The delivery
techniques include:
(1) pouring granular flux onto the welding operation,
(2) using a stick electrode coated with flux material in which the coating melts
during welding to cover the operation, and
(3) using tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the core and released
as the electrode is consumed.
Power Source in Arc Welding both Direct Current (DC) and Alternating
Current(AC) are used.
AC machines are less expensive to purchase and operate, but are generally
restricted to welding of ferrous metals.
 DC equipment can be used on all metals with good results and is generally
noted for better arc control.
 Resistance Welding (RW) is A group of fusion welding processes that
uses a combination of heat and pressure to accomplish coalescence(joining)
.
 Oxyfuel gas welding is a Group of fusion welding operations that burn
various fuels mixed with oxygen.
Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate metal
plates and other parts
Solid state welding

 Joining processes in which coalescence results from application of pressure


alone or a combination of heat and pressure.

• If heat is used, temperature is below melting point of metals being welded


No filler metal is added in solid state welding.
Some Solid State Welding Processes
 Diffusion welding (DFW) -coalescence is by solid state fusion between
two surfaces held together under pressure at elevated temperature.

 Friction welding (FRW) - coalescence by heat of friction between two


surfaces.
 Ultrasonic welding (USW) - coalescence by ultrasonic
oscillating motion in a direction parallel to contacting
surfaces of two parts held together under pressure.

Figure: Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general setup for a


lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area.
 Forge Welding: This involves heating the materials to a high temperature
and then hammering or pressing them together under high pressure to
form a weld.

 Explosion Welding: In this process, an explosive force is used to rapidly


bring the materials together under high pressure, causing them to bond.
Welding Joints
 welded joint is a permanent joint which is obtained by the fusion of the edges
of the two parts to be joined together, with or without the application of
pressure and a filler material.
 The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that have been joined by welding.
Two issues about weld joints:
 Types of joints
 Types of welds used to join the pieces that form the joints
Five Types of Joints
(a) Butt joint, (b) corner joint, (c) lap joint, (d) tee joint, and (e) edge joint
The butt joints may be
1. Square butt joint,
2. Single V‐butt joint
3. Single U‐butt joint,
4. Double V‐butt joint, and
5. Double U‐butt joint
Types of Welds
The main considerations involved in the selection of weld type are:
1. The shape of the welded component required,
2. The thickness of the plates to be welded, and
3. The direction of the forces applied.
Five types of welding
1. Fillet Welds
• Easy preparation
• Asymmetric loads, lower design loads

(a) Inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c) double
fillet lap joint; (d) double fillet tee joint (dashed lines show the original part edges).
Types of Welds
2. Groove Welds

Need to machine a groove to weld

(a) Square groove weld, one side; (b) single bevel groove weld;
(c) single V-groove weld; (d) single U-groove weld; (e) single J-
groove weld; (f) double V-groove weld for thicker sections
(dashed lines show original part edges).
Types of Welds
3. Plug Weld and Slot Weld

(a) Plug weld and (b) slot weld

Both are used to attach plates using one or more holes or


slots in top part and then filling with filler metal to fuse the
two parts together.
Types of Welds
4. Spot Weld and Seam Weld

Fused section between surfaces of two sheets or plates:

(a) spot weld and (b) seam weld

Used for lap joints

Closely associated with resistance welding


Types of Welds

5 Flange Weld and Surfacing Weld

(a) Flange weld and (b) surfacing weld used not to join
parts but to deposit filler metal onto surface of a base part.
Arc Welding Positions
• Welding positions defined here for groove
welds:
(a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d)
overhead
Welding variables
Properly maintaining welding variables is critical to establishing high weld
quality in any operation.
Many companies put welding procedures in place that define the recommended
parameters to help create consistency among welders and parts
1. Welding Amperage
Welding amperage refers to the amount and speed of electricity flowing in a
circuit, which affects the heat available to melt the welding wire and the base
material.
 It is directly correlated to wire feed speed (WFS): the speed and volume of
filler metal going into the weld.
When WFS increases, so does the welding amperage; when it decreases, so
does the amperage.
This correlation, in turn, affects weld penetration.
Higher amperage settings yield greater joint penetration while lower amperage
settings provide less.
2. Wire Feed Speed (WFS)
In addition to being directly correlated to amperage, WFS also affects welding
transfer modes.
Higher WFS and voltage moves the process into a globular mode where large
droplets of wire transfer across the arc to the weld pool.
 Increasing WFS (and therefore, amperage) and voltage allows for the use of a
spray transfer mode.
Increasing WFS also provides higher deposition rates: the amount of filler metal
added to a weld joint in a given period of time
Lower WFS and voltage keeps the process in the range for short-circuit welding,
in which the wire touches the base material and shorts from the contact that
transfers the metal.
3. Welding Voltage
Voltage refers to the electrical pressure that causes amperage to flow within the
welding circuit.
It is directly responsible for adjusting arc length.
Higher welding voltage equals a longer arc
Welding voltage affects the final weld in a variety of ways. If it is too high, the
result will be a flatter bead and a concave weld profile.
Voltage that is too high also can lead to undercut or a groove in the base
material near the weld toe that isn’t filled with weld metal.
 If welding voltage is too low, it can cause cold lap—a defect that occurs when
the filler metal doesn’t fully fuse with the base material at the weld’s toes.
4. Travel Speed
Travel speed simply refers to how fast the arc moves along the weld joint,
measured in inches per minute (IPM).
Because changes in travel speed affect heat input, it’s important to take care
when welding heat-sensitive materials, like aluminum.
Welding faster will reduce heat input and prevent issues like burn through.
Multi pass welding on thick materials may require slower travel speeds to fill
each pass and support good grain refinement.
Travel speeds that are too slow can lead to too much heat, a wide weld bead
and poor penetration, while traveling too fast creates a narrow weld with
insufficient weld toe tie-in.
5.. Shielding Gas
Shielding gas, whether argon or carbon dioxide (CO2) - the most commonly
used - has an impact on weld characteristics and welding performance.
 One hundred percent CO2 shielding gas provides deep joint penetration on
thicker material, but it does tend to have less arc stability and generate higher
levels of spatter.
 Adding argon to CO2 helps create aesthetically pleasing welds with less spatter.
Shielding gas mixture with high levels of argon creates welds with higher tensile
and yield strengths but lower ductility.
High levels of CO2 in the mixture improve ductility and crack resistance but
decrease tensile and yield strengths.
Just as voltage and WFS affect welding transfer modes, so too does shielding
gas.
Welding metallurgy
Welding metallurgy describes a microcosm of metallurgical processes occurring
in and around a weld that influence the microstructure, properties, and
weldability of the material
Due to the rapid heating and cooling rates associated with most welding
processes, metallurgical reactions often occur under transient, non-equilibrium
conditions
Microstructure and Properties
Physics of Welding
Fusion is most common means of achieving coalescence in welding.

To accomplish fusion, a source of high density heat energy must be


supplied to the faying surfaces.
Resulting temperatures cause localized melting of base metals (and
filler metal, if used)

For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt the metal with minimum


energy but high heat densities.
Power Density
Power transferred to work per unit surface area, W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in 2)

 If power density is too low, heat is conducted into work, so melting never
occurs.

 If power density too high, localized temperatures vaporize metal in


affected region.

 There is a practical range of values for heat density within which welding
can be performed.
Power density
Power entering surface divided by corresponding surface
area:

PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2);

P = power entering surface, W (Btu/sec);

A = surface area over which energy is entering, mm2 (in2)


Heat Transfer Mechanism in Welding
Not all of the input energy is used to melt the weld metal

1. Heat transfer efficiency f1 - actual heat received by


work piece divided by total heat generated at source.
2. Melting efficiency f2 - proportion of heat received
at work surface used for melting
The rest is conducted into work metal
Heat Available for Welding

where

• Hw = net heat available for welding;

• f= heat transfer efficiency;

• f2= melting efficiency;

• H = total heat generated by welding process


Energy Balance Equation
• Net heat energy into welding operation equals heat
energy required to melt the volume of metal welded

Hw = Um V

Hw = net heat energy delivered to operation, J (Btu);

Um = unit energy required to melt the metal, J/mm3


(Btu/in3);

V = volume of metal melted, mm3 (in3)


Welding Techniques
• Depending upon the ways in which welding rod and the welding torch may be
used, there are two usual techniques in gas welding, namely:
– Leftward technique or Forehand welding method.
– Rightward technique or Back hand welding method.
Leftward or Forward Welding Technique
• The welder holds welding torch in his right hand and filler rod in the left
hand.
• The welding flame is directed away from the finished weld, i.e., towards the
un-welded part of the joint. Filler rod, when used, is directed towards the welded
part of the joint.
• The weld is commenced on the right-hand side of the seam, working towards the
left-hand side.
• The blowpipe or welding torch is given small sideways movements, while the
filler rod is moved steadily across the seam.
• The filler rod is added using a backward and forward movement of the rod,
allowing the flame to melt the bottom edges of the plate just ahead of the weld
pool.
• Since the flame is pointed in the direction of the Welding, it preheats the edges
of the joint.
• Good control and a neat appearance are characteristics of the leftward method.
• Leftward technique is usually used on relatively thin metals, i.e., having
thicknesses less than 5 mm.
• When work piece thickness is over 3 mm, it is necessary to bevel the plate edges
to produce a V-joint so that good root fusion may be achieved.
• When welding materials over 6.5 mm thick, it is difficult to obtain even
penetration at the bottom of the V and, therefore, the quality of the weld decreases
as plate thickness increases.
• The leftward technique requires careful manipulation to guard against excessive
melting of the base metal, which results in considerable mixing of base metal and
filler metal.
• The torch tip makes an angle of 60-70° and the filler rod makes an angle of 30-
40° with the work surface.
• The flame is given a circular, rotational or side-to-side movement to obtain
uniform fusion while the rod should be moved backward and forward along the
plate. This technique is used for un bevelled steel plates up to 3 mm and beveled
plates up to 6mm.
• The plates above 6mm thickness are not economical to weld by this technique.
Rightward or Backward Welding Technique
• Here again the welding torch is held in the right hand of the welder and the filler
rod in the left hand.
• Welding begins at the left-hand end of the joint and proceeds towards the right,
hence the name rightward technique.
• The direction of welding is opposite to that when employing the leftward
technique.
• The torch flame in rightward technique is directed towards the completed weld
and the filler rod remains between the flame and the completed weld section.
• Since the flame is constantly directed on the edges of the V ahead of the weld
puddle (Molten metal pool) , no sidewise motion of the welding torch is necessary.
• As a result, a narrower V-groove (30° bevel or 60° included angle) can be utilized
than in leftward welding. This provides a greater control and reduced welding
costs.
• During welding, the filler rod may be moved in circles (within the puddle) or
semicircles (back and forth around the puddle).
• The rightward technique is one used on heavier or thicker (above 5 mm) base
metals, because in this technique the heat is concentrated into the metal.
• Welds with penetrations of approximately 12 mm can be achieved in a single
pass
• Rightward technique has got certain advantages over the leftward one, as listed
below:
– Up to 8.2 mm plate thickness, no bevel is necessary. This saves the cost of
preparation and reduces the consumption of filler rod.
– For welding bigger thicknesses, where beveling of plate edges becomes
necessary, the included angle of V need be only 60°, which requires less filler
metal against 80°V preparation used in leftward welding technique.
• In this technique, the welding torch is held in the right hand and the filler rod is
in the left hand.
• The welding is started from the left hand end of the plate and travels towards
right hand. The torch tip makes an angle of 40-50° and the filler rod makes an
angle of 30-40° with the work surface.
• The filler rod is given circular motion and the torch is moved straight along the
joint.
• This technique is better and economical for welding heavy steel sections and
plates over 6mm thickness. For plates above 8mm thickness, the plate edges are
bevelled to produce ‘V’ of 60.
• This type of welding technique provides a better shielding of the welded portion
against atmospheric oxidation.
• The weld produced by this method is stronger, denser and tougher.
– The weld quality is better than that obtained with the leftward technique.
– Owing to less consumption of the filler metal, the rightward technique involves
lower cost of welding than leftward technique.
Welding Torch or Blow Pipe
• Oxygen and the fuel gas having been reduced in pressure by the gas regulators
are fed through suitable hoses to a welding torch which mixes and controls the
flow of gases to the welding nozzle or tip where the gas mixture is burnt to
produce a flame for carrying out gas welding operation.
• There are two types of welding torches, namely:
– High pressure (or equal pressure) type.
– Low pressure (or injector) type.
• High pressure blow-pipes or torches are used with acetylene stored in
cylinders at a pressure of 8 bar.
• Low pressure blow-pipes are used with acetylene obtained from an acetylene
generator at a pressure of 200 mm head of water (approximately 0.02 bar).
• Vertical Welding:
• In this technique, the welding is started from the bottom of the welded joint and
goes towards top of the joint.
• This may be carried out either by the leftward or rightward technique. The
welding is done by giving oscillating movement to the torch and the filler rod.
• The torch makes an angle of 25 to 90°, depending upon the thickness of the
plates to be welded.
• The filler rod makes an angle of 30° with the vertical line. This method is better
and economical for plate’s thickness of 6mm and above.
• No edge preparation is needed for plates up to 16 mm thickness.
Overhead welding
• Overhead welding is performed from the underside of a joint.
• In overhead welding, the metal deposited tends to drop or sag on the plate,
causing the bead to have a high crown.
• To overcome this difficulty, the molten puddle should be kept small, and enough
filler metal should be added to obtain good fusion with some reinforcement at the
bead. If the puddle becomes too large, the flame should be removed for an instant
to permit the weld metal to freeze.
• When welding light sheets, the puddle size can be controlled by applying the heat
equally to the base metal and filler rod.
• Only a small puddle is required, so a rod should be used. Care should be taken to
control the heat to through the plates.
Features of Fusion Welding
Fusion zone:
Region of the weld that is completely melted and resolidified
Microstructure dependent on composition and solidification
Conditions
Local variations in composition
Distinct from other regions of the weld
Features of Fusion Welding
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

⚫ below melting but has substantial microstructural change though has the same chemical
composition as base metal (heat treating) usually degradation in mechanical properties
happen.

Unaffected base metal zone (UBMZ)

⚫ high residual stress

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