Tubes, Transistors and Amplifiers

Tubes, Transistors and Amplifiers
1
Interest
In 1947, Bardeen & Brattain at
Bell Laboratories created the
first amplifier! Shockley
(boss), came near to
canceling the project. The
three shared a Nobel Prize.
Bardeen and Brattain
continued in research (and
Bardeen later won another
Nobel). Shockley quit to start
a semiconductor company in
Palo Alto. It folded, but its
staff went on to invent the
integrated circuit (the "chip")
& to found the Intel
Corporation.
2
Tetrode Tube
Control Grid: Controls
amplification rate &
electron flow with bias
(+) Plate voltage.
Shield: Screen grid-

increases electron speed
cathode to + plate.
(-) Shield
Control Heater: Heats gas to gas
amplification state.
Grid
(-) Cathode Inert Gas: Mercury or
Argon gas.
Inert Gas
Heater
3
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
3 Electron Beams (Red, Green, Blue)
Phosphor
Grids Conductive Coated
(-) Cathode (+) Anode
Coating Screen
The cathode is a heated filament (like light bulb filament) in a vacuum inside a glass tube. The
ray is a stream of electrons that naturally pour off a heated cathode into the vacuum.
The + anode attracts the electrons pouring off the cathode. In a TV's CRT, the stream of
electrons is focused by a focusing anode into a tight beam and then accelerated by an
accelerating anode. This tight, high-speed beam of electrons flies through the vacuum in the
tube and hits the flat screen at the other end of the tube. This screen is coated with phosphor,
which glows when struck by the beam.
4
Bipolar Transistors
•History
–Created in 1948 in the AT&T Bell Laboratories.
–Scientists were performing doping experiments
on semiconductor material (diodes) and
developed a semiconductor device having three
(3) PN junctions.
5
Bipolar Transistor Construction
• NPN / PNP Block Diagrams
Emitter Collector
N P N
Base Emitter Collector

P N P
Base
6
Bipolar Transistor Theory
• For any transistor to conduct, two
things must occur.
 The emitter - base PN junction
must be forward biased.
 The base - collector PN junction
must be reverse biased.
7
Bipolar Transistor Biasing (NPN)
FB RB
Emitter Collector
- N P N
+
Base +
8
Bipolar Transistor Biasing (PNP)
FB RB
Emitter P Collector
+
N P
-
Base -
9
Bipolar Transistor Operation (PNP)
•90% of the current carriers pass through the
reverse biased base - collector PN junction
and enter the collector of the transistor.
•10% of the current carriers exit transistor
through the base.
•The opposite is true for a NPN transistor.
10
Amplifier Operation
• The transistor below is biased such that there is a
degree of forward bias on the base - emitter PN
junction.
• Any input received will change the magnitude of
forward bias & the amount of current flow through
the transistor.
RC +VCC +
RB
+
Q1 0
0
Input Signal Output Signal

11
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation
•When the input signal is large enough, the transistor
can be driven into saturation & cutoff which will make
the transistor act as an electronic switch.
•Saturation - The region of transistor operation where a
further increase in the input signal causes no further
increase in the output signal.
•Cutoff - Region of transistor operation where the input
signal is reduced to a point where minimum transistor
biasing cannot be maintained => the transistor is no
longer biased to conduct. (no current flows)
12
Amplifier Electric Switch Operation
–Transistor Q-point
•Quiescent point : region of transistor operation where
the biasing on the transistor causes operation / output
with no input signal applied.
–The biasing on the transistor determines the amount of time
an output signal is developed.
–Transistor Characteristic Curve
•This curve displays all values of IC and VCE for a given
circuit. It is curve is based on the level of DC biasing
that is provided to the transistor prior to the
application of an input signal.
–The values of the circuit resistors, and VCC will determine
the location of the Q-point.
13
Transistor Characteristic Curve
90 uA IB
IC 80 uA
70 uA
Q-Point
Saturation 60 uA
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff VCE
14
Transistor Maintenance
• When troubleshooting transistors, do the
following:
– Remove the transistor from the circuit, if
possible.
– Use a transistor tester, if available, or use a
digital multimeter set for resistance on the
diode scale.
– Test each PN junction separately. ( A “front
to back” ratio of at least 10:1 indicates a
good transistor).
15
Transistor Maintenance
•This chart shows the readings for a good transistor.
Test Lead NPN PNP
Connection Resistance Reading Resistance Reading
(+/-) (High / Low) (High / Low)
Transistor Maintenance Chart
Base - Emitter LOW HIGH
Emitter - Base HIGH LOW
Base - Collector LOW HIGH
Collector - Base HIGH LOW
Emitter - Collector HIGH HIGH
Collector - Emitter HIGH HIGH
16 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Questions
Q1. What is the 7 step troubleshooting method?
A1. Symptom recognition, symptom
elaboration, list possible faulty functions,
identify faulty function, identify faulty
component, failure analysis, repair, retest.
Q2. What was the most difficult problem you
ever troubleshot?
A2. Various
17
Bipolar Transistor Amplifiers
•Amplifier Classification
–Amplifiers can be classified in three ways:
•Type (Construction / Connection)
–Common Emitter
–Common Base
–Common Collector
•Bias (Amount of time during each half-cycle output is
developed).
–Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class C
•Operation
–Amplifier
–Electronic Switch
18
Common Emitter Schematic
Output Signal Flow Path
RC +VCC +
RB
+
Q1 0
0
Input Signal Output Signal

Input Signal Flow Path
19
Kirchoff Voltage Law
• DC Kirchoff Voltage Law Equations and Paths

+VCC
Base - Emitter Circuit
RC
RB
IBRB + VBE - VCC = 0
Q1 Collector - Emitter Circuit

ICRC + VCE - VCC = 0
20
Common Emitter Operation
+
Positive Going Signal
RC
0 Base becomes more (+) WRT
RB
Input Emitter  FB   IC  
Signal VRC   VC  
Q1
VOUT  ( Less + )
Negative Going Signal

Base becomes less (+) WRT
Output + Emitter  FB   IC  
Signal VR   VC  
C
VOUT  ( More + )
0
21
Common Base Schematic
Q1
RE RB RC
+ +
CC
0 +VCC
0
22
Q1

RE RB RC IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0
CC
+VCC Collector - Emitter Circuit
ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0

Common Base Operation
Q1
Positive Going Signal
RE RB RC Base becomes more (+) WRT

Emitter  FB   IC  
CC VR   VC  
C
+VCC
VOUT  ( More + )

+ Base becomes less (+) WRT
Emitter  FB   IC  
0 0 VR   VC  
C
Input Output VOUT  ( Less + )
24 Signal Signal
CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
Common Collector Schematic

+VCC
+ RB
Q1
0
Input Signal +
RE 0
Output Signal

+VCC
IBRB + VBE + IERE - VCC = 0
RB
Q1
Collector - Emitter Circuit
ICRC + VCE + IERE - VCC = 0
RE

Common Collector Operation
+VCC Positive Going Signal
RB Base becomes more (+) WRT
Emitter  FB   IE  
Q1
VRE   VE  
VOUT  ( More + )
RE
Base becomes less (+) WRT
+ +
Emitter  FB   IE  
0 0 VRE   VE  
Input Output VOUT  ( Less + )
Signal Signal
AZAZA VOPINI & House of BEC
Common
Common Common
Common Common
Common
BB EE CC
Av
Av==Voltage
VoltageGain
Gain
Zo
Zo==Output
Output Impedance
Impedance
Ap
Ap== Power
Powergain
gain
Zin Input Impedance
Zin==Input Impedance
Ai
Ai==Current
CurrentGain
Gain

Transistor Bias Stabilization
•Used to compensate for temperature

effects which affects semiconductor
operation. As temperature increases, free
electrons gain energy and leave their lattice
structures which causes current to increase.

Types of Bias Stabilization
•Self Bias: A portion of the output is fed back to the input
180o out of phase. This negative feedback will reduce overall
amplifier gain.
•Fixed Bias: Uses resistor in parallel with Transistor emitter-
base junction.
•Combination Bias: This form of bias stabilization uses a
combination of the emitter resistor form and a voltage
divider. It is designed to compensate for both temperature
effects as well as minor fluctuations in supply (bias) voltage.
•Emitter Resister Bias: As temperature increases, current flow
will increase. This will result in an increased voltage drop
across the emitter resistor which opposes the potential on the
emitter of the transistor.
Self Bias Schematic
+VCC
+
o
++o RC
Initial Self Bias +

Input Feedback RB
Q1
o
+
VOUT
=
o
Resulting
31 Input
Emitter Bias Schematic
+VCC
DC Component
AC Component
RC
RB ++ +
+ + Q1
o
o - VOUT
Initial +
Input RE CE
-
Combination Bias Schematic
+VCC
DC Component
AC Component
RC
RB1 ++ +
+
+ Q1
o
o RB2
Initial
- VOUT
Input + CE
RE
-
Amplifier Frequency Response
•The range or band of input signal frequencies
over which an amplifier operates with a
constant gain.
•Amplifier types and frequency response
ranges.
•Audio Amplifier
–15 Hz to 20 KHz
•Radio Frequency (RF) Amplifier
–10 KHz to 100,000 MHz
•Video Amplifier (Wide Band Amplifier)
–10 Hz to 6 MHz

Class ‘A’ Amplifier Curve
IC 90 uA IB
80 uA
70 uA
Saturation 60 uA
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
Q-Point
10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff VCE
Class ‘B’ Amplifier Curve
IC
90 uA IB
80 uA
70 uA
60 uA
Saturation
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
Q-Point 10 uA
0 uA
VCE
Cutoff
Class ‘AB’ Amplifier Curve
Can be used for guitar distortion.
90 uA IB
IC 80 uA
70 uA
60 uA
Saturation
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
Q-Point 10 uA
0 uA
Cutoff VCE
Class ‘C’ Amplifier Curve
90 uA IB
IC 80 uA
70 uA
60 uA
Saturation
50 uA
40 uA
30 uA
20 uA
10 uA
0 uA
Q-Point
Cutoff VCE

Amplifier Coupling Methods
•Direct: The output of the first stage is directly connected
to the input of the second stage. Best Frequency Response -
No frequency sensitive components.
•Impedance (LC) Coupling: Similar to RC coupling but an
inductor is used in place of the resistor. Not normally used
in Audio Amplifiers.
•RC Coupling: Most common form of coupling used. Poor
Frequency Response.
•Transformer Coupling: Most expensive form coupling
used. Mainly used as the last stage or power output stage
of a string of amplifiers.
Direct Coupling Schematic
+VCC
2
RC2
+VCC1
RC1 RB2
Q2
RB1
Q1

RC Coupling Schematic
+VCC2
RC2
+VCC1
RC1 RB2
Q2
CC
RB1
Q1

Impedance Coupling Schematic
+VCC2
RC2
+VCC1
RB2
Q2
CC
RB1
Q1

Transformer Coupling
Schematic +V CC2
RC2
+VCC1
RC1 RB2
Q2
RB1 T1
Q1

Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
•Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
–Construction
•Block Diagram
Anode Cathode
P N P N
Left
Floating Gate
44
Region
OPAMP Voltage Regulators
-
Vin + Vout

SCR Schematic
Anode Cathode
Gate

SCR Bias
•When the SCR is forward biased and a gate signal

is applied, the lightly doped gate region’s holes will
fill with the free electrons forced in from the
cathode.
FB FB
Anode Cathode
+
P N P N -
RB
Gate
+
SCR Operation
•Acts as an electronic switch
•Essentially a rectifier diode which has a controllable
“Turn - on” point. Can be switched approximately
25,000 times per second.
•Once the SCR conducts, the gate signal can be
removed. The difference in potential across the anode &
cathode of the SCR will maintain current flow.
•When the voltage across the SCR drops to a level below
the “Minimum Holding” value, the PN junctions will
reform and current flow through the SCR will stop.

SCR Phase Control
•The term Phase Control refers to a process where varying the
timing of the gate signal to an SCR will vary the length of time
that the SCR conducts.
–This will determine the amount of Voltage or Power delivered to a load.

Unijunction Transistors (UJT)
•Construction: Originally called “Double-based
Diodes.”
–“P” Type material doped into the “N” type base
material.
–Placement of the Emitter into the Base determines
the voltage level (%) at which the the UJT fires.
•This % is called the “Intrinsic Standoff Ratio (  ).”
–Once constructed, the Intrinsic Standoff Ratio cannot be changed.
•The actual voltage value at which the UJT fires is
determined by the amount of source voltage applied.

UJT Block Diagram
Base 2 Equivalent Circuit

Base 2
Emitter
P N Emitter
Base 1 Base 1

UJT Schematic Symbol
Base 2
Emitter
Base 1

UJT No Operation
•When VE is less than or equal to the voltage base one to
emitter requirement (VE - B1), the UJT will not fire.
Base 2
++
Depletion Region
No Current Flow
Emitter
P N
+
Base 1
-
UJT Operation
•When VE is more than the voltage base one to
emitter requirement (VE - B1), the UJT will fire.
Base 2
++
Emitter UJT Fires

P N
VE > VE-B1
+
Base 1 -
UJT Sawtooth Generator
R1 Q1 VBB
B2
E
VOUT C1 B1 SW1
C1 Charge
C1 Discharge

UJT Relaxation Oscillator
+
VOUT1
R1 RB2
VBB
VOUT2
VOUT2 + Q1
+ VOUT1
C1 SW1
VOUT3 VOUT3
RB1
C1 Charge
C1 Discharge

UJT Relaxation Oscillator
•The output of the Oscillator can be used for

sweep generators, gating circuit for SCR’s, as
well as timing pulses for counting and timing
circuits.

Questions
• Q3. What is the phase relationship between
input and output voltage in a common emitter
circuit?
• A3. 180 degrees.

More Questions
• Q4. What type of transistor bias uses both self
and fixed bias?
• A4. Combination bias.
• Q5. What is the frequency response range of
an RF amplifier?
• A5. 10Khz – 100, 000 Mhz.

4 . Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS)
a . Construction
J1 J2
P N P
A1 A2
G
A2
A1
G
b . Schematic Symbol
Anode 2 Anode 1
A2 A1
Gate

c . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse
Breakover Breakback
Voltage Voltage
V A2-A1
Forward
Breakover
Holding Current (IHO) Voltage

d . Characteristics
1 . More vigorous switching characteristic. V to
almost zero.
2 . More temperature stable.
3 . More symmetrical wave form output.
4 . Popular in low voltage trigger control circuits.
e . Theory
1 . Lower breakover voltages than Diac. (+/- 8V is
most popular).
2 . SBS has more pronounced “Negative
Resistance” region.
3 . It’s decline in voltages is more drastic after it
enters the conductive state.
f . Operation
1 . As shown below, if a zener diode is placed in the
gate circuit between “G” and “A1”, the forward
breakover voltage (+VBO) can be altered to
approximately that of the zener voltage (VZ).
a . -VBO is unaffected.
SBS
A2 A1

2 . Characteristic Curve
I (mA)
Reverse
Breakback
Breakover
Voltage
Voltage
V A2-A1
Forward
Holding Current (IHO) Breakover
Voltage

5 Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS)
a Construction
Anode Cathode
P N P N
Gate

b . Schematic Symbol
Anode Cathode
Gate

c Theory
1 Similar to the four (4) layer diode except the +VBO can
be altered by using the gate terminal voltage.
d Operation
I
Reverse
Breakdown
Voltage
{ Much greater than
Forward Breakover
Voltage }
-V A-C Forward V A-C
Breakover
Voltage

6 . Varactor
a . Construction
P N

b . Theory
1 . For testing purposes, a front to back ratio of 10:1
is considered normal.
2 . The size of the depletion region in a varactor
diode is directly proportional to the amount of bias
applied.
a . As forward bias increases, capacitance (Depletion
region) decreases.
b . As reverse bias increases, capacitance (Depletion
region) increases.
3 . In the capacitance equation below, it is shown
that only the distance between plates can be
changed.
Where: A = Plate Area
C = Ak k = Constant
d = Distance between plates
dCENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics
70
a . An increase in reverse bias increases the width of the
gap (d) which reduces the capacitance of the PN junction
and vice versa.
4 . Advantage: Allows DC voltage to be used to tune
a circuit for simple remote control or automatic
tuning function.
c . Operation
1 . used to replace old style variable capacitor tuning
circuits.
2 . They are used in tuning circuits of more
sophisticated communications equipment and in
other circuits where variable capacitance is
required.

Depletion Region
20F 5F
P N P N
3V 6V

A . Special Purpose Amplifiers
1 . Differential Amplifier
a . Schematic Diagram
+ VCC
RC (1) RC (2)
RB (1) VOUT RB (2)
VIN (1)
VIN (2)
Q1 Q2
RE
- VEE

b . Operation
+ VCC
RC (1) RC (2)
+
+ RB (1)
++
+ VOUT
- ++
RB (2)
+ + 0
0 VIN (1)
VIN (2)
Q1
- -Q 2
RE
- VEE
+
VOUT
(+) / (-) ARE ASSIGNED BY WHICH VOLTMETER

LEAD IS USED AS THE REFERENCE 0

2 . Operational Amplifiers (OPAMPS)
a .Block Diagram (Basic)
+ vCC
INVERTING
INPUT
-
DIFFERENTIAL VOLTAGE OUTPPUT
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER
OUTPUT
NON-INVERTING
+
INPUT
- vEE

b . Ideal OPAMP Characteristics
1 . Infinite () Input Impedance
a Draws little or no current from source.
2 . Zero Output Impedance
3 . Infinite () Gain
4 . Infinite () Frequency Response
a Constant gain over any range of input
signal frequencies.

c . Types of OPAMPS
1 . Linear (Output is Proportional to Input)
a . Inverting
RF
+ +
+ VIN -
VOUT
+ 0
0
R1
-

b . Non - Inverting
RF
+ +
-
VOUT
R1
+ VIN + 0
0
-

c . Summing
+ R1
VIN1 +
0
VIN1 R2
VIN2
+ VIN2 RF
0 R3
0
+ VIN3 +
VIN3 R4
0
+ -
VIN4 VIN4 VOUT
0 +
R5
-

d . Difference
+ R1
VIN1 +
0
VIN1 R2
VIN2
+ VIN2 RF
0
0
VIN3
+ +
0 R3
VIN3 -
VIN4
+ R4 VOUT
0 +
VIN4 R5
+
VIN5
0 VIN5 -

2 . Non - Linear (Output is not Proportional to Input)
a . Comparator
VREF ATTACHED TO EITHER + OR - TERMINALS

(EXAMPLE SHOWS OUTPUT WITH VREF CONNECTED TO THE
NON-INVERTING TERMINAL.)
+ (WAVEFORM WOULD BE INVERTED IF VREF WAS ATTACHED

TO THE INVERTING TERMINAL)
VIN VREF
0 +
+ VIN -
VOUT
VOUT 0
+
VREF -
-

b . Differentiator
RF
C1 + +
+ VIN -
VOUT
+ 0
0
R1
-

c . Integrator
C1
+ +
+ VIN -
VOUT
+ 0
0
R1
-

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Tubes, Transistors and Amplifiers

Shield: Screen grid-

3 Electron Beams (Red, Green, Blue)

Base Emitter Collector

Input Signal Output Signal

Base - Collector LOW HIGH

Collector - Base HIGH LOW

Emitter - Collector HIGH HIGH

Collector - Emitter HIGH HIGH

16 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Output Signal Flow Path

Input Signal Output Signal

• DC Kirchoff Voltage Law Equations and Paths

Q1 Collector - Emitter Circuit

Negative Going Signal

Output Signal Flow Path

Base - Emitter Circuit

23 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

RE RB RC Base becomes more (+) WRT

Negative Going Signal

Output Signal Flow Path

25 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

26 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

28 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

•Used to compensate for temperature

29 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

Initial Self Bias +

34 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

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•When the SCR is forward biased and a gate signal

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Base 2 Equivalent Circuit

51 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

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Emitter UJT Fires

55 CENT-112 Fundamentals of Electricity and Electronics

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•The output of the Oscillator can be used for

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