General Chemistry (Chem.

1012)
Chapter one

What is chemistry?

Chemistry is the science of matter and the changes it can undergo.

The world of chemistry therefore embraces everything material
around us:
• The stones we stand on,
• The food we eat,
• The flesh we are made of,
• The silicon in our computers.
There is nothing material beyond the reach of chemistry, be it living
or dead, vegetable or mineral, on Earth or in a distant star.
Why are you studying chemistry?

Chemical substances and processes are essential for our existence, providing
sustenance, keeping us clean and healthy, fabricating electronic devices, enabling
transportation, and much more.
You may be studying chemistry because it fulfills an academic requirement, but if you
consider your daily activities, you might find chemistry interesting for other reasons.
Most everything you do and encounter during your day involves chemistry. Making
coffee, cooking eggs, and toasting bread involve chemistry.
 Cont`d

The products you use like:

• soap and shampoo, the fabrics you wear, the electronics that keep you
connected to your world,
• the gasoline that propels your car all of these and more involve chemical
substances and processes. Whether you are aware or not, chemistry is part of
your everyday world. In this chapter, you will learn many of the essential
principles underlying the chemistry of modern-day life.
Chemistry and society

Throughout human history, people have tried to convert matter into more useful forms.
Our Stone Age ancestors:
• chipped pieces of flint into useful tools and
• carved wood into statues and toys. These endeavors involved changing the shape
of a substance without changing the substance itself. But as our knowledge
increased, humans began to change the composition of the substances as well.
• clay was converted into pottery,
• hides were cured to make garments,
• copper ores were transformed into copper tools and weapons and
• grain was made into bread.
Cont`d
Humans began to practice chemistry when they learned to control fire and use it to cook,
make pottery, and smelt metals.
Subsequently, they began to separate and use specific components of matter.
A variety of drugs such as aloe, myrrh, and opium were isolated from plants.
Dyes, such as indigo and Tyrian purple, were extracted from plant and animal matter.
Metals were combined to form alloys for example, copper and tin were mixed together to
make bronze and more elaborate smelting techniques produced iron.
Alkalis were extracted from ashes, and soaps were prepared by combining these alkalis
with fats.
Alcohol was produced by fermentation and purified by distillation. Attempts to understand
the behavior of matter extend back for more than 2500 years.
The Domains of Chemistry
Chemists study and describe the behavior of matter and energy in three different domains:
macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic. These domains provide different ways of
considering and describing chemical behavior.
Macro is a Greek word that means “large.” The macroscopic domain is familiar to us: It is
everyday things that are large enough to be sensed directly by human sight or touch. In daily
life, this includes:
• the food you eat
• the breeze you feel on your face, when a fuel burns,
• a leaf changes color in the fall or magnesium burns brightly in air.
Every day and laboratory chemistry, where we observe and measure physical and chemical
properties such as density, solubility, and flammability.
Cont`d

Micro comes from Greek and means “small.” The microscopic domain of
chemistry is often visited in the imagination. Some aspects of the
microscopic domain are visible through standard optical microscopes, for
example, many biological cells. More sophisticated instruments are capable
of imaging even smaller entities such as molecules and atoms.
Con`d

However, most of the subjects in the microscopic domain of chemistry are

too small to be seen even with the most advanced microscopes and may
only be pictured in the mind. For instance:
• Ions and electrons, protons and neutrons,
• Chemical bonds, each of which is far too small to see.
The symbolic domain contains the specialized language used to represent components of
the macroscopic and microscopic domains.
• Chemical symbols (such as those used in the periodic table)
• Chemical formulas,
• Chemical equations are part of the symbolic domain,
• Graphs, drawings, and calculations.
A helpful way to understand the three domains is via the essential and ubiquitous
substance of water.
That water is a liquid at moderate temperatures, will freeze to form a solid at lower
temperatures, and boil to form a gas at higher temperatures are macroscopic
observations.
The description of water as comprising two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom,
and the explanation of freezing and boiling in terms of attractions between these
molecules, is within the microscopic level.
The formula H2O, which can describe water at either the macroscopic or microscopic
levels, is an example of the symbolic domain.
The abbreviations (g) for gas, (s) for solid, and (l) for liquid are also symbolic.
Note: A chemist thinks at the microscopic level, conducts experiments at the
macroscopic level, and represents both symbolically
The branches of chemistry

Traditionally, the field of chemistry has been organized into three main branches:
• Organic chemistry, the study of carbon compounds;
• Inorganic chemistry, the study of all the other elements and their compounds;
• Physical chemistry, the study of the principles of chemistry
New areas of study have developed as information has been acquired in specialized
Areas or as a result of the use of particular techniques.
•Biochemistry, the study of the chemical compounds, reactions, and other processes in living systems;
•Analytical chemistry, the study of techniques for identifying substances and measuring their amounts;
•Theoretical chemistry, the study of molecular structure and properties in terms of mathematical models;
•Computational chemistry, the computation of molecular properties;
•Chemical engineering, the study and design of industrial chemical processes, including the fabrication of
manufacturing plants and their operation;
•Medicinal chemistry, the application of chemical principles to the development of pharmaceuticals;
•Biological chemistry, the application of chemical principles to biological structures and processes.
 Cont`d

Other interdisciplinary branches

•Molecular biology, the study of the chemical and physical basis of biological
function and diversity, especially in relation to genes and proteins;
•Material science, the study of the chemical structure and composition of
materials;
•Nanotechnology, the study of matter at the nanometer level, where structures
consisting of small number of atoms can be manipulated.
The Scientific Method
Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation.
Doing chemistry involves attempting to answer questions and explaining
observations in terms of the laws and theories of chemistry, using procedures
that are accepted by the scientific community.
Scientific method: is a logical, careful and systematic approach to solve scientific
problems
Steps in Scientific Method
1. Observation: is looking through carefully the nature of the event
Types of observation: qualitative and quantitative
Qualitative observation: have no number with them
Examples: the sky is blue, the paper is white, etc
Quantitative observation: have number with number and are more useful.
Examples: a water freezes at 0 0C, sugar weighs 20 kg, etc
2. Hypothesis: is tentative explanation for an observation.
hypothesis is useful if it can be used to make predictions.
 Cont`d

3. Experiment or testing hypothesis: is examining facts about hypothesis.

4. Theory: is tested hypothesis
It always serve as aid to new experiments and constantly being tested.
It can be rejected or modified when it is proven incorrect
5. Scientific law: Is a general statement that summarizes facts that come from many
experiments.
Examples: The law of conservation of mass
The law of gravitational force
Matter and Energy

Whenever we touch, pour, or weigh something, we are working with matter.

Chemistry is concerned with the properties of matter and particularly the
conversion of one form of matter into another kind.
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. Thus, gold, water, and
flesh are forms of matter; electromagnetic radiation (which includes light) and
justice are not.
In everyday language, a “substance” is just another name for matter.
In chemistry, a substance is a single, pure form of matter.
Thus, gold and water are distinct substances. Flesh is a mixture of many different
substances, and, hence it is a matter.
Air is matter; but, being a mixture of several gases, it is not a single substance.
Substances, and matter in general, come in different forms, called states of matter.
The three most common states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas:
•A solid is a form of matter that retains its shape and does not flow.
•A liquid is a fluid form of matter that has a well-defined surface; it takes the shape of
the part of the container it occupies.
•A gas is a fluid form of matter that fills any vessel containing it.
The term vapor denotes the gaseous form of a substance that is normally a solid or
liquid. Thus, ice (the solid form of water), liquid water, and water vapor (steam).
Classification of Matter
Matter can be classified into several categories. Two broad categories are mixtures
and pure substances.
A pure substance has a constant composition. All specimens of a pure substance have
exactly the same makeup and properties.
Any sample of sucrose (table sugar) consists of 42.1% carbon, 6.5% hydrogen, and
51.4% oxygen by mass.
Any sample of sucrose also has the same physical properties, such as melting point,
color, and sweetness, regardless of the source from which it is isolated.
Pure substances may be divided into two classes: elements and compounds.
Elements: Pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical changes.
For example: Iron, silver, gold, aluminum, sulfur, oxygen, and copper are familiar
examples of the more than 100 known elements,
Compounds: Pure substances that can be broken down by chemical changes This
breakdown may produce either elements or other compounds, or both. For example:
Mercury (II) oxide, an orange, crystalline solid, can be broken down by heat into the
elements mercury and oxygen.

• The properties of combined elements are different from those in the free, or
uncombined, state.
Cont`d
• A mixture is composed of two or more types of matter that can be present in varying
amounts and can be separated by physical changes, such as evaporation.
• A heterogeneous mixture with a composition that varies from point to point. Has two or
more phase.
Examples blood, milk, rock salt, a mixture of oil and water
• A homogeneous mixture, also called a solution, exhibits a uniform composition and
appears visually the same throughout. Has one phase.
Examples include air, maple syrup, gasoline, and a solution of salt in water., sugar
solution, air, alloys, sea water etc.
Physical and Chemical Properties
The characteristics that distinguish one substance from another are called properties.
• A physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its chemical
composition.
Examples of physical properties include:
density, color, hardness, melting and boiling points, electrical conductivity
Some physical properties, such as density and color, may be observed without changing the physical state
of the matter.
• Other physical properties, such as the melting temperature of iron or the freezing temperature of water,
can only be observed as matter undergoes a physical change.
A physical change is a change in the state or properties of matter without any accompanying change in the
chemical identities of the substances contained in the matter.
• Physical changes are observed when wax melts, when sugar dissolves in coffee, and when steam
condenses into liquid water.
In each of these examples, there is a change in the physical state, form, or properties of the substance, but
no change in its chemical composition.
• The change of one type of matter into another type chemical property. Examples of
chemical properties include flammability, toxicity, acidity, and many other types of
reactivity. Iron, for example, combines with oxygen in the presence of water to form rust;
All chemical reactions.
Food being cooked, digested, or rotting
Extensive and Intensive Property
Properties of matter fall into one of two categories.
If the property depends on the amount of matter present, it is an extensive property.
• Examples: The mass and volume of a substance; length, area, thickness,
• If the property of a sample of matter does not depend on the amount of matter present, it is an
intensive property.
Examples: Temperature, density, melting point, color, freezing point, conductivity, specific gravity.
 Force
• A force, F, is an influence that changes the state of motion of an object.
For instance, we exert a force to open a door to start the door swinging open, we exert a
force on a ball when we hit it with a bat.
• According to Newton’s second law of motion, when an object experiences a force, it is
accelerated. The acceleration, a, of the object, the rate of change of its velocity, is
proportional to the force that it experiences:
• The constant of proportionality between the force and the acceleration it produces is
the mass, m, of the object experiencing the force.
• Force = mass × acceleration, or F = ma
This expression, in the form a = F/m, tells us that a stronger force is required to accelerate
a heavy object by a given amount than to accelerate a lighter object by the same amount.
Energy
Some chemical changes give off a lot of energy; others absorb energy.
• An understanding of the role of energy is the key to understanding chemical phenomena
and the structures of atoms and molecules.
What is energy?
• In chemistry, we use a practical definition of energy as the capacity to do work, with work
defined as motion against an opposing force,
Energy = force × distance
Thus, energy is needed to do the work of raising a weight a given height or the work of
forcing an electric current through a circuit. The greater the energy of an object, the greater
its capacity to do work.
The SI unit for energy is the joule (J).
1 J = 1 kg.m2.s-2
Cont`d
• There are three contributions to energy: kinetic energy, potential energy, and
electromagnetic energy.
Kinetic energy, Ek is the energy that a body possesses due to its motion. For a body of
mass m traveling at a speed v, the kinetic energy is;
Ek = 1/2mv2.
• The potential energy, Ep, of an object is the energy that it possesses on account of its
position in a field of force.
Ep = mgh
• Electromagnetic energy is the energy of the electromagnetic field, such as the energy
carried through space by radio waves, light waves, and x-rays (very high energy
electromagnetic radiation).
• An electromagnetic field is generated by the acceleration of charged particles and
consists of an oscillating electric field and an oscillating magnetic field.
• The crucial distinction is that, an electric field affects charged particles whether they are
still or moving, whereas a magnetic field affects only moving charged particles.
• Total energy = kinetic energy + potential energy, or E = Ek + Ep
• Total energy of an object is conserved (constant), provided there are no outside
influences.
• Kinetic energy and potential energy can change into each other, but their sum for a
given object, whether as large as a planet or as tiny as an atom, is constant.
Chemical energy refers to the change in energy when a chemical reaction
takes place, as in the combustion of a fuel.
It is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of the substances
participating in the reaction, including the potential and kinetic energies of
their electrons.
Thermal energy is the sum of the potential and kinetic energies arising from
the thermal motion of atoms, ions, and molecules.
Note. Kinetic energy results from motion, potential energy from position. An
electromagnetic field carries energy through space.
work is motion against an opposing force
Chapter Two
Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Atoms
Atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist.
An element is a substance composed of only one kind of atom.
• The development of modern atomic theory revealed much about the inner structure of
atoms. An atom contains a very small nucleus composed of positively charged protons and
uncharged neutrons, surrounded by a much larger volume of space containing negatively
charged electrons.
• The nucleus contains the majority of an atom’s mass whereas electrons occupy almost all
of an atom’s volume.
• The diameter of an atom is on the order of 10−10 m, whereas the diameter of the nucleus is
roughly 10−15 m.
• If the nucleus were the size of a blueberry, the atom would be about the size of a football
stadium.
Cont`d
• When describing the properties of tiny objects such as atoms, we use
appropriately small units of measure, such as the atomic mass unit (amu) and
the fundamental unit of charge (e).
• Atomic mass unit (amu) is the unit of scale of relative atomic masses of the
elements.
• 1amu = 1/12 × mass of C-12, the actual mass of C-12 is 2× 10-23
= 1/12 × 2× 10-23 g = 1.67×10-24 g.
• Atomic mass of an atom = absolute mass of an atom / 1.67×10-24 g/amu.
The absolute mass of magnesium atom is 4× 10-23 g. calculate its atomic mass ?
Name Location Charge (C) Unit Mass Mass (g)
charge (amu)

Electron Outside −1.602 × 10−19 1- 0.00055 0.00091 × 10−24

nucleus

Proton Nucleus 1.602 × 10−19 1+ 1.0073 1.67262 × 10−24

Neutron Nucleus   0 1.0087 1.67493 × 10−24

• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number (Z).
• This is the defining trait of an element: Its value determines the identity of the atom. For
example, any atom that contains six protons is the element carbon and has the atomic
number 6, regardless of how many neutrons or electrons it may have.
• A neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons.
• The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its mass number (A).
• Atomic number (Z) = Number protons
• Mass number (A) = number of proton + number of neutron
• A – Z = Number of neutron
Cont`d
• Atoms are electrically neutral if they contain the same number of positively charged
protons and negatively charged electrons.
• When the numbers of these subatomic particles are not equal, the atom is electrically
charged and is called an ion.
• The charge of an atom is defined as follows:
• Atomic charge = number of protons − number of electrons
what are Isotopes?
• Isotopes: are atoms of the same elements with different mass number and neutron
number
• The symbol for a specific isotope of any element is written by placing the mass number
as a superscript to the left of the element symbol.
• For example, magnesium exists as a mixture of three isotopes, each with an atomic
number of 12 and with mass numbers of 24, 25, and 26, respectively.
• These isotopes can be identified as 24
Mg, Mg, and
25
Mg. These isotope symbols are
26

read as “element, mass number” and can be symbolized consistent with this reading.
For instance, 24Mg is read as “magnesium 24,” and can be written as “magnesium-24” or
“Mg-24.”
Average atomic mass: Is the sum of each individual isotope’s mass multiplied by its fractional
abundance.
Average mass = ∑(fractional abundance × isotopic mass)
For example, the element boron is composed of two isotopes: About 19.9% of all boron
atoms are 10B with a mass of 10.0129 amu, and the remaining 80.1% are 11B with a mass of
11.0093
amu. The average atomic mass for boron is calculated to be:
boron average mass = (0.199 × 10.0129 amu) + (0.801 × 11.0093 amu)
= 1.99 amu + 8.82 amu = 10.81 amu.
It is important to understand that no single boron atom weighs exactly 10.8 amu; 10.8 amu is
the average mass of all boron atoms, and individual boron atoms weigh either approximately
10 amu or 11 amu.
Exercise
A sample of magnesium is found to contain 78.70% of Mg atoms (mass 23.98
24

amu), 10.13% of 25
Mg atoms (mass 24.99 amu), and 11.17% of 26Mg atoms
(mass 25.98 amu). Calculate the average mass of a Mg atom. An ion of platinum
has a mass number of 195 and contains 74 electrons. How many protons and
neutrons does it contain, and what is its charge?
Organization of the elements
The periodic table is an arrangement of the elements by atomic number that reflects their
family relationships; members of the same group typically show a smooth trend in
properties.

A metal conducts electricity, has a luster, and is malleable and ductile.

A nonmetal does not conduct electricity and is neither malleable nor ductile.
A metalloid has the appearance of a metal but can behave chemically like a metal or a
nonmetal, depending on conditions
What is compound?
A compound is an electrically neutral substance that consists of two or
more different elements with their atoms present in a definite ratio.
A binary compound consists of only two elements.
A molecule is a discrete group of atoms bonded together in a specific
arrangement.
An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom or molecule.
Cation is a positively charged ion
Anion is a negatively charged ion
An ionic compound consists of ions in a ratio that results in overall
electrical neutrality
A molecular compound consists of electrically neutral molecules.
• Organic compounds contain the element carbon and usually hydrogen, too.
• Inorganic compounds are all the other compounds; they include water, calcium sulfate,
ammonia, silica, hydrochloric acid, and many, many more.
• In addition, some very simple carbon compounds, particularly carbon dioxide and the
carbonates, which include chalk (calcium carbonate), are treated as inorganic
compounds.
• Intermetallic compounds are inorganic compounds that are formed when the atoms of
two metals bond in specific proportions. Examples are nitinol, NiTi.
• Atoms can bond together to form molecules or can be present in compounds as ions:
• A molecule is a discrete group of atoms bonded together in a specific arrangement.
• An ion is a positively or negatively charged atom or molecule.
• A positively charged ion is called a cation, and a negatively charged ion is called an anion.
For instance, a positively charged sodium atom is a cation and is denoted Na+; a negatively
charged chlorine atom is an anion and is denoted Cl-.
• An ionic compound consists of ions in a ratio that results in overall electrical neutrality; a
molecular compound consists of electrically neutral molecules.
Molecules and Molecular compounds
The chemical formula of a compound represents its composition in terms
of chemical symbols. Subscripts show the numbers of atoms of each
element present in the smallest unit that is representative of the compound
A structural formula indicates how the atoms are linked together, but not
their actual three-dimensional arrangement in space
The nomenclature of compounds
• Many compounds were given informal, common names before their
compositions were known.
• Common names include water, salt, sugar, ammonia, and quartz.
• A systematic name, on the other hand, reveals which elements are
present and, in some cases, the arrangement of atoms.
• The systemic naming of compounds, which is called chemical
nomenclature, follows the simple rules described in this section
Names of cation
• The name of a monatomic cation is the same as the name of the element forming it,
with the addition of the word ion, as in “sodium ion” for Na+.
• When an element can form more than one kind of cation, such as Cu+ and Cu2+ from
copper, we use the oxidation number, the charge of the cation, written as a Roman
numeral in parentheses immediately following the name of the element.
• Thus, Cu+ is a copper (I) ion and Cu2+ is a copper (II) ion.
• Some older systems of nomenclature are still in use. For example, some cations were
once denoted by the endings -ous and -ic for the ions with lower and higher charges,
respectively.
• Thus, iron (II) ions were called ferrous ions and iron (III) ions were called ferric.
• We do not use this system in this text, but you will sometimes come across it and
should be aware of it.
Names of anions
• Monatomic anions, such as the Cl- ions in sodium chloride and the O2- ions in
quicklime (CaO), are named by adding the suffix -ide.
• Example, S2- is a sulfide ion and O2- is an oxide ion. There is usually no need
to specify the charge because most elements that form monatomic anions form
only one kind of ion.
• The ions formed by the halogens are collectively called halide ions and include
fluoride (F-), chloride (Cl-), bromide (Br-), and iodide (I-) ions.
Cont`d
• Polyatomic ions: include the oxoanions, which are ions that contain oxygen.
• If only one oxo anion of an element exists, its name is formed by adding the suffix
-ate to the stem of the name of the element, as in the carbonate ion, CO32-.
• Some elements can form two types of oxoanions, with different numbers of oxygen
atoms, so we need names that distinguish them. Nitrogen, for example, forms both
NO2- and NO3- In such cases, the ion with the larger number of oxygen atoms is given
the suffix -ate, and that with the smaller number of oxygen atoms is given the suffix
-ite.
• Thus, NO3- is nitrate, and NO2- is nitrite.
• Some elements, particularly the halogens, form more than two kinds of oxoanions.
• The name of the oxoanion with the smallest number of oxygen atoms is formed by
adding the prefix hypo- to the -ite form of the name, as in the hypochlorite ion,
ClO-.
• The oxoanion with the most oxygen atoms is named with the prefix per- added to
the -ate form of the name. An example is the perchlorate ion, ClO4-.
Names of ionic compounds
• An ionic compound is named with the cation name first, followed by the name of the anion;
the word ion is omitted in each case.
• The oxidation number of the cation is given if more than one charge is possible. However, if
the cation comes from an element that exists in only one charge state, then the oxidation
number is omitted.
• Typical names include potassium chloride (KCl),
a compound containing K+ and Cl- ions; and, ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), which contains

NH4+ and NO3- ions.

• The cobalt chloride that contains Co2+ ions (CoCl2) is called cobalt (II) chloride; CoCl3
contains Co3+ ions and is called cobalt (III) chloride. Notice that the number of chloride ions is
determined by the need for charge balance.
Ionic Hydrates

• Ionic compounds that contain water molecules as integral components of their

crystals are called hydrates.
• The name for an ionic hydrate is derived by adding a term to the name for the
anhydrous (meaning “not hydrated”) compound that indicates the number of
water molecules associated with each formula unit of the compound.
• The added word begins with a Greek prefix denoting the number of water
molecules, and ends with “hydrate.”
• For example, the anhydrous compound copper (II) sulfate also exists as a
hydrate containing five water molecules and named copper (II) sulfate
pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O,).
• Washing soda is the common name for a hydrate of sodium carbonate
containing 10 water molecules; the systematic name is sodium carbonate
decahydrate (Na2CO3∙10H2O).
Names of inorganic molecular compounds
• Many simple inorganic molecular compounds are named by using the
Greek prefixes to indicate the number of each type of atom present.
• When naming common binary molecular compounds, name the element
that occurs further to the right in the periodic table second, with its ending
changed to -ide: phosphorus trichloride, PCl3 dinitrogen oxide, N2O sulfur

hexafluoride, SF6 dinitrogen pentoxide, N2O5.

• An oxoacid is an acidic molecular compound that contains oxygen.
• Oxoacids are the parents of the oxoanions in the sense that an oxoanion is
formed by removing one or more hydrogen ions from an oxoacid molecule.
• In general, -ic oxoacids are the parents of -ate oxoanions and -ous oxoacids are
the parents of –ite oxoanions.
• For example, H2SO4, sulfuric acid, is the parent acid of the sulfate ion, SO4 2-.

• Similarly, the parent acid of the sulfite ion, SO32-, is the molecular compound

H2SO3, sulfurous acid

CHAPTER THREE
COMPOSITION OF SUBSTANCES AND SOLUTION

• Chemists report numbers of atoms, ions, and molecules in terms of a unit called a“
mole.”
• A mole is the analog of the wholesaler’s “dozen.”
• 1 mole of objects contains the same number of objects as there are atoms in exactly 12
g of carbon-12.
Cont`d
• To see what we mean by 1 mol, we could weigh out 12 g of carbon-12.
How can we tell how many atoms are present?
• Counting atoms directly is impractical, we use an indirect route based on the
mass of one atom.
• The mass of a carbon-12 atom has been found by mass spectrometry to be
1.992 65 X 10-23 g.
• It follows that the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
• Number of C atoms = 12 g / 1.992 65 * 10-23 g = 6.0221 * 1023
• Because the mole is equal to this number, we can apply the definition to any
object, not just carbon atoms:
• 1 mol of objects means 6.0221 X 1023 of those objects.
Cont`d
• Therefore, 1 mol of atoms of any element, 1 mol of ions, and 1 mol of molecules each
contain 6.0221 X 1023 atoms, ions, and molecules, respectively.
• Just as 1 g and 1 m are units for physical properties, so too is the unit 1 mol.
• The mole is the unit for the physical property formally called the amount of substance, n.
• The number of objects per mole, 6.0221 X 1023 mol-1, is called Avogadro’s constant, NA.
Avogadro’s constant is used to convert between the chemical amount (the number of
moles) and the number of atoms, ions, or molecules in that amount:
• Number of objects = amount in moles X number of objects per mole
= amount in moles X Avogadro’s constant
Cont`d
• If we denote the number of objects by N and the amount of substance (in moles) by
n, this relation is written: N = n NA.
• Example: Nanotechnology researchers have developed a hydrogen storage device
capable of storing 1.29 X 1024 hydrogen atoms. What is the chemical amount (in
moles) of hydrogen atoms that can be stored in the device?
• Solution: From n = N/NA, n = 1.29 * 1024 H / 6.0221 * 1023 mol-1 = 2.14 mol H
• Example: A small cup of coffee contains 3.14 mol H2O. What is the number
of H atoms present in the coffee?
• Note. The amounts of atoms, ions, or molecules in a sample are expressed
in moles, and Avogadro’s constant, NA, is used to convert between numbers
of these particles and the numbers
Molar Mass

How can we determine the amount of substance present if we can’t count the atoms directly?

We can find the amount of substance if we know the mass of the sample and the molar mass, M,
the mass per mole of particles:

• The molar mass of an element is the mass per mole of its atoms.

• The molar mass of a molecular compound is the mass per mole of its molecules.

• The molar mass of an ionic compound is the mass per mole of its formula units.

The units of molar mass in each case are grams per mole (g/mol).

The mass of a sample is the amount (in moles) multiplied by the mass per mole (the molar
mass),
Cont`d

Mass of sample = amount in moles x mass per mole

Therefore, if we denote the total mass of the sample by m, we can write m = n M.

It follows that n = m/M.

That is, to find the amount in moles, n, we divide the total mass, m, of the sample
by the molar mass of the species present.
Example

Calculate (a) the amount and (b) the number of F atoms in 22.5 g of fluorine. The molar mass of fluorine
atoms is 19.00 g.mol-1, or, more specifically, 19.00 g. (mol F)-1.

From n = m/M,

n(F) = 22.5 g /19.00 g. (mol F)-1 = 22.5 / 19.00 mol F = 1.18 mol F.

(b) To calculate the actual number, N, of atoms in the sample, we multiply the amount (in moles) by
Avogadro’s constant: From N = n NA, N = (1.18 mol ) * (6.022 * 1023 mol-1) = 7.11 * 1023 F
The molar masses of elements are determined by using mass spectrometry to measure the
masses of the individual isotopes and their abundances.

The mass per mole of atoms is the mass of an individual atom multiplied by Avogadro’s
constant (the number of atoms per mole):

M = matom NA

• The greater the mass of an individual atom, the greater the molar mass of the substance.
• In chemistry, we always deal with natural samples of elements, which have the natural
abundance of isotopes.
• Average molar mass is calculated by taking into account the masses of the isotopes and
their relative abundances in typical samples: M = matom average NA
Example 3: Evaluating an average molar mass

Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. The mass of an atom of
chlorine-35 is 5.807 x 10-23 g and that of an atom of chlorine-37 is 6.139 x 10-23 g.

In a typical natural sample of chlorine, 75.77% of the sample is chlorine-35 and 24.23% is chlorine-37.

What is the molar mass of a typical sample of chlorine?

First calculate the average atomic mass of the isotopes by adding together the individual masses, each
multiplied by the fraction that represents its abundance. Then obtain the molar mass, the mass per
mole of atoms, by multiplying the average atomic mass by Avogadro’s constant.
Solution:

The fraction of chlorine-35 atoms in the sample is 75.77/100 = 0.7577, and the fraction
of chlorine-37 is 24.23/100 = 0.2423. The average mass of an atom of chlorine in a
natural sample is

M atom, average = fchlorine-35 * mchlorine-35 + fchlorine-37 * mchlorine-37,

= 0.7577 * (5.807 * 10-23 g) + 0.2423* (6.139 * 10-23 g) = 5.887 * 10-23

g, therefore, the molar mass will be

From M = m atom, average NA,

M = (5.887 x 10-23 g) x (6.022 x 1023 mol-1) = 35.45 g.mol-1

To calculate the molar masses of compounds, we use the molar masses of the elements
present:

The molar mass of a compound is the sum of the molar masses of the elements that make up
the molecule or the formula unit.

We need only how many times each atom or ion appears in the molecular formula or the
formula unit of the ionic compound.

For example, 1 mol of the ionic compound Al2(SO4)3 contains 2 mol Al, 3 mol S, and 12 mol O.

Therefore, the molar mass of Al2(SO4)3 is

M(Al2(SO4)3) = 2M(Al) + 3M(S) + 12M(O)

=2(26.98 g.mol-1) + 3(32.06 g.mol-1) + 12(16.00 g.mol-1)

= 342.14 g.mol-1
Two terms used throughout the chemical literature are atomic weight and
molecular weight:

• The atomic weight of an element is the numerical value of its molar mass.

• The molecular weight of a molecular compound or the formula weight of an ionic

compound is the numerical value of its molar mass.

• The mass of an object is a measure of the quantity of matter that it contains, whereas
the weight of an object is a measure of the gravitational pull that it experiences.
• Mass and weight are proportional to each other, but they are not identical
 
Examples

Suppose we are preparing a solution of potassium permanganate, KMnO4, and need

about 0.10 mol of the compound (that is, 0.10 mol KMnO4). How many grams of the
compound do we need?

Solution: To find the mass of KMnO4 that corresponds to 0.10 mol KMnO4, we note that,
because the molar mass of the compound is 158.04 g.mol-1,

From m = n M, m = (0.10 mol) x (158.04 g.mol-1) = 16 g

So, we need to measure out about 16 g of KMnO4. If, when we weigh the sample, we find

that its actual mass is 14.87 g, the amount of KMnO4 that we actually weighed out is

From n = m/M,

n(KMnO4) = = 0.094 09 mol KMnO4.

Determination of chemical formula

Empirical formula:

• The empirical formula shows the relative numbers of atoms of each element present
in the compound
• For example, the empirical formula of glucose, which is CH2O, tells us that carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms are present in the ratio 1:2:1.
• The elements are present in these proportions regardless of the size of the sample.
• After the empirical formula has been determined, the next step is to determine the
molecular formula
Molecular formula:

• Shows the actual numbers of atoms of each element in a molecule.

• The molecular formula for glucose, which is C6H12O6, tells us that each glucose molecule
consists of 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms.
• In contrast, the empirical formula gives only the ratios of the numbers of atoms of each element.
Therefore, different compounds with different molecular formulas can have the same empirical
formula.
• For example, formaldehyde, CH2O (the preservative in formalin solution), acetic acid, C2H4O2

(the acid in vinegar), and lactic acid, C3H6O3 (the acid in sour milk), all have the same empirical

formula (CH2O) as that of glucose, but are different compounds with different properties
 
Mass percentage composition

To determine the empirical formula of a compound, we begin by measuring the mass of

each element present in a sample. The result is usually reported as the mass percentage
composition that is, the mass of each element expressed as a percentage of the total mass:

Mass percentage of element =

Example: An analysis of a sample of eucalyptol of total mass 3.16 g gave its composition as
2.46 g of carbon, 0.373 g of hydrogen, and 0.329 g of oxygen. Determine the mass
percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in eucalyptol.

Solution

Mass percentage of carbon = x 100 = x 100 = 77.8 %

 
Cont`d

Mass percentage of hydrogen = x100 = x100 = 11.8 %

Mass percentage of oxygen = %

Determining empirical formulae

Recall that an empirical formula gives the relative numbers of atoms of each element in
the compound.

• To convert the mass percentages into an empirical formula, we must convert the
mass percentage of each type of atom into the relative number of atoms of that
element.

• The simplest procedure is to imagine that we have a sample with a mass of exactly
100 g. In this case the mass percentage composition gives the mass in grams of
each element. Then we use the molar mass of each element to convert these
masses into amounts in moles and go on to find the relative numbers of moles of
each type of atom.
 
Example: Determining the elemental composition from mass percentage composition

Suppose that an analytical laboratory reported a composition of 40.9% carbon, 4.58% hydrogen,
and 54.5% oxygen for a sample of vitamin C. In what atom ratios are the elements present in
vitamin C?

Solution: consider a sample of exactly 100 g, then convert the masses into amounts in moles by
dividing the mass percentage for each element by the element’s molar mass.

n(C) = = 3.41 mol

Likewise, from the mass percentages of hydrogen and oxygen, we find

n(H) = 4.54 mol and n(O) = 3.41 mol

It follows that, in any sample of vitamin C, the atoms are present in the ratio

3.41 C : 4.54 H : 3.41 O

Cont`d

• To find the empirical formula of vitamin C from the data in Example, we must express the
ratios of numbers of atoms as the simplest whole numbers.

• First, we divide each number by the smallest value (3.41), which gives a ratio of
1.00:1.33:1.00.

• Molecules contain only whole numbers of atoms, and one of these numbers is still not a
whole number. Hence, we must multiply each number by the correct factor so that all
numbers can be rounded off to whole numbers.

• We multiply all three numbers by 3 to obtain 3.00:3.99:3.00, or approximately 3:4:3. Now we

know that the empirical formula of vitamin C is C3H4O3.
Example. Determining the empirical formula from mass percentage composition

The mass percentage composition of a compound that assists in the coagulation of blood is
76.71% C, 7.02% H, and 16.27% N. Determine the empirical formula of the compound

Solution.

Divide each mass percentage by the molar mass of the corresponding element to obtain the
number of moles of that element found in exactly 100 g of the compound. Divide the number of
moles of each element by the smallest number of moles. If fractional numbers result, then
multiply by the factor that gives the smallest whole numbers of moles.

The mass of each element X, m(X), in exactly 100 g of the compound is equal to its mass
percentage in grams.

m(C) = 76.71 g

m(H) = 7.02 g

m(N) = 16.27 g
 
Convert each mass to an amount, in moles by using the molar mass, of the element.

n(C) = = 6.387 mol

n(H) = = 6.96 mol H

n(N) = = 1.161 mol N

Divide each amount by the smallest amount (1.161 mol).

Carbon = = 5.5

Hydrogen = = 5.99

Nitrogen = = 1

Because 5.5 is approximately 11⁄2, we multiply all the numbers by 2 to get the ratio
11.00:12.0:2.000. The empirical formula is therefore C11H12N2.

.
 Determining the molecular formula

• We have determined that the empirical formula of vitamin C is C3H4O3. However, the
empirical formula tells us only that the C, H, and O atoms are present in the sample in the
ratio 3:4:3, not the number of each type of atom in a molecule.
• The molecular formula could be C3H4O3, C6H8O6, C9H12O9, or any other whole-number
multiple of the empirical formula.
• To find the molecular formula of a compound, we need one more piece of information, its
molar mass.
• Then all we have to do is to calculate how many empirical formula units are needed to
account for the molar mass.
• One of the best ways of determining the molar mass of an organic compound is by mass
spectrometry
EXAMPLE: Determining the molecular formula from the empirical formula

Mass spectrometry has been used to show that the molar mass of vitamin C is176.12g/mol

Given its empirical formula of C3H4O3, what is the molecular formula of vitamin C?

Solution:

To find the number of formula units needed to account for the observed molar mass of a
compound, divide the molar mass of the compound by the molar mass of the empirical formula
unit.

The molar mass of a C3H4O3 formula unit is

Molar mass of C3H4O3 = 3 * (12.01 g.mol-1) + 4 * (1.008 g.mol-1) +3 * (16.00 g.mol-1) = 88.06
g.mol-1
 
Cont`d

Dividing the molar mass of the compound by the molar mass of the empirical formula
unit yields the factor by which we must multiply the coefficients in the empirical formula
to obtain the molecular formula:

= =2

We conclude that the molecular formula of vitamin C is 2 x (C3H4O3), or C6H8O6.

The molecular formula of a compound is found by determining how many empirical

formula units are needed to account for the measured molar mass of the compound.
Mixtures and solutions

Mixtures: When one substance mingled with another.

For example- air, blood, and seawater are mixtures.

- A medicine, such as a cough syrup

- perfume.
Differences between compounds and mixtures

A compound has a fixed composition

- There are always two H atoms for each O atom in a sample of the compound water.

- A compound has chemical properties that differ from those of its component elements

- The formation of a compound requires a chemical change.

Mixture: The composition may be varied.

- sugar and sand, for instance, can be mixed in any proportions.

- The components of a mixture are merely mingled with one another, they retain their own
chemical properties .

- The formation of a mixture is a physical change,

Mixture – heterogeneous and homogeneous mixture

Heterogeneous mixtures

- Have component particles that are so large we can see them with

an optical microscope or even the unaided eye.

eg - rocks that form the landscape are heterogeneous mixtures of crystals of

different minerals.

- Milk
-Human bodies are heterogeneous mixtures of thousands of compounds
Homogeneous mixtures

-Also called a solution

-The molecules or ions of the components are so well mixed

- The composition is the same throughout the mixture

For example, syrup mixture of sugar and water.

- Beer, plant extracts, various additives. Filtered seawater

- Even when using a microscope, we cannot distinguish between a

pure substance and a homogeneous mixture.
Forming a solution is a physical change.

• Dissolving: Is the process of producing a solution.

• Solvent: The component of the solution present in the larger amount

(water in these examples)

• Solute: is any dissolved substance

For example, in a thick syrup, the sugar may be present in a much greater
amount than the water, but water is considered the solvent.

- Solvent determines the physical state of the solution (whether it is a solid,

a liquid, or a gas).
Crystallization: When a solute slowly comes out of solution as crystals as
the solvent evaporates.

- For example, salt crystals that form when water evaporates.

precipitation: when a solute forms a finely divided powder called a

precipitate.

- is almost instantaneous.

Aqueous solutions: solutions in which the solvent is water.

- Aqueous solutions are very common in everyday life

- In chemical laboratories;
Nonaqueous solutions: are solutions in which the solvent is not water
Non aqueous solutions are less common than aqueous solutions

- have important uses. Examples tetrachloroethene, C2Cl4.

In “dry cleaning,” the grease and dirt on fabrics are dissolved in a nonaqueous
liquid solvent.

solid solutions: a solution in which the solvent is a solid.

An example: Brass is a solution of zinc in copper.

Gaseous solutions: are referred to as gaseous mixtures.

Example:- Atmosphere regarded as a vast gaseous solution of various

substances. - It is normally termed a gaseous mixture.
Separation techniques

• Natural products, such as enzymes and vitamins, are almost invariably

extracted from mixtures.

• We first separate its components by physical means and then identify

each individual substance present.

- Common physical separation techniques include decanting, filtration,

chromatography, and distillation.
Decanting makes use of differences in density. One liquid float on another
liquid or lies above a solid and is poured off.
Filtration is used to separate substances when there is a difference in
solubility.
- Can be used to separate sugar from sand
- Filtration is a common first stage in the treatment of domestic water
supplies.
• Chromatography separating a mixture based on the different abilities of
substances to adsorb, or stick, to surfaces.
Distillation makes use of differences in boiling points to separate
mixtures.

- When a solution is distilled, the components of the mixture boil

away at different temperatures and condense in a cooled tube called
a condenser.

- Can be used to remove water (which boils at 100°C) from table

salt (sodium chloride)
 
• Concentration: amount of solute in a given volume of solution.

The molar concentration, c, of a solute in a solution, called the “molarity” of the

solute, - Is the amount of solute molecules or formula units (in moles) present in a given
volume of the solution (in liters):

Molarity = , c =

- The units of molarity are moles per liter (molL-1), often denoted M: 1 M = 1 molL-
1

- The symbol M is often read “molar”

- Note that 1 molL–1 is the same as 1 mmol/mL–1.

Units for very low concentrations of solutes

- (mmol/L–1) and micromoles per liter (µmolL-1).

Mass percentage (w/w%)
• Also called percent by weight or weight percent.
• Is the mass of each component in a total of 100 grams of the mixture
• Is the ratio of mass of solute to the mass of solution multiplied by 100
Volume percentage (v/v%)

Mass by volume percentage (w/v%)

- can be defined as the mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL of the solution.
When the mass of the solute in the solution is very small, we use
Parts per million
• One ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram of something per liter of water
(mg/L)

• ppm = mass percentage × 104

Parts per billion
Also called µg/L or micrograms per liter.

• ppb = mass percentage × 107

Q. If 160 g of orange juice contains 112 mg of ascorbic acid,
what is the concentration of ascorbic acid expressed in
a. % by mass b. ppm c. ppb
Example

Suppose you dissolved 10.0 g of cane sugar in enough

water to make 200. mL of solution, Cane sugar is sucrose
(C12H22O11, molar mass =342 gmol-1). What is the molarity
of sucrose in the solution?
 
Solution

Molar concentration (molarity) is c = n/V; we first need to

convert the mass of solute to an amount in moles (by using n =
m/M) and then substitute that amount into this expression for c.

From c = n/V and n = m/M, n= m/M

c = = = 0.146 mol L-1

 
Dilution: is decreasing its concentration, to whatever concentration is needed by
adding more solvent.

CinitialVinitial = CfinalVfinal = n

Example: Prepare 250. mL of 1.25 x 10-3 M NaOH(aq) from a 0.0380 M

NaOH(aq) stock solution. How much stock solution do we need?

Solution: From n = CfinalVfinal,

n = (1.25 x 10–3 molL–1) x (0.250 L)

= (1.25 x 10-3 x 0.250) mol = 0.0003125 mol

Vinitial = n/Cinitial,

Vinitial = = 8.22 * 10-3 L

Stock solution: - a solution in a concentrated form or a very concentrated solutio

Stoichiometry of chemical reaction

chemical reactions: a processes by which one or more substances are converted

into other substances

Example: - growth of a child,

- Production of polymers from petroleum

- Digestion of food are all the outcome of chemical reaction.

This type of process is a chemical change.

Reactants: The starting materials for chemical reaction.

Products: substances formed during chemical reaction.

Reagents : The chemicals available in a laboratory.

 Symbolizing chemical reactions
A chemical reaction is symbolized by an arrow

• When we drop a small lump of sodium metal into a container

of water, hydrogen gas forms rapidly and sodium hydroxide is
produced in solution.
Skeletal equation: shows the identities of the reactants and products in terms
of chemical formula.

- is a qualitative summary of a chemical reaction.

To summarize reactions quantitatively,

- Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction: they simply
change their partners.
- There is no overall change in mass when a reaction takes place in a sealed
container.
- The observation that the total mass is constant during a chemical reaction is
called the law of conservation of mass.
• Stoichiometric coefficient: The number multiplying an entire
chemical formula in a chemical equation

• A chemical equation typically also shows the physical state of

each reactant and product by using a state symbol:

• (s): solid (l): liquid (g): gas (aq): aqueous solution

For the reaction between solid sodium and liquid water, the
complete, balanced chemical equation is:
Interpretation of a chemical equation.

Note that the equation for the reaction of sodium with water tells us that

• when any 2 atoms of sodium react with 2 molecules of water, they produce 2
formula units of NaOH and one molecule of hydrogen.

• when 2 moles of Na atoms react with 2 moles of H2O molecules, they produce

2 moles of NaOH formula units and 1 mole of H2 molecules.

• A balanced chemical equation symbolizes both the qualitative and the

quantitative changes that take place in a chemical reaction.

• The stoichiometric coefficients tell us the relative numbers of moles of

reactants and products taking part in the reaction.
 Balancing a Chemical Equations

Q Methane, CH4 burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water, both
formed initially as gases. write the balanced equation for the reaction

Q Write and balance the chemical equation for the combustion of liquid
hexane, C6H14, to gaseous carbon dioxide gas and gaseous water.
Q When aluminum is melted and heated with solid barium oxide, a vigorous
reaction takes place, and elemental molten barium and solid aluminum oxide are
formed. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
Q Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction of solid magnesium
nitride with aqueous sulfuric acid to form aqueous magnesium sulfate and
aqueous ammonium sulfate
Aqueous solutions and precipitation

• A soluble substance is one that dissolves to a significant extent in a specified solvent.

• An insoluble substance is one that does not dissolve significantly in a specified

solvent;

• substances are often regarded as “insoluble” if they do not dissolve to more than
about 0.1 molL-1.

• Unless otherwise specified, we use the term insoluble to mean “insoluble in water.”

• Calcium carbonate, CaCO3, which makes up limestone and chalk, dissolves to form a
solution that contains only 0.01 gL-1 (1 x 10-4 molL-1)

- regarded as insoluble.
• A solute may be present as ions or as molecules.

Ions in the solution conducts an electric current.

- a current is a flow of electric charge, only solution containing ions

conduct electricity.

• An electrolyte is a substance that is present as ions in a solution.

- example: Ionic solids that are soluble in water.

• Some electrolytes, such as acids, exist as molecules that form ions only
when they dissolve.

• Electrolyte solution is commonly used to emphasize that the medium is

in fact a solution.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that does not form ions in solution;

- dissolves to give a nonelectrolyte solution.

Example: - Aqueous solutions of acetone

- glucose are nonelectrolyte solutions.

• Organic compounds except acids that dissolve in water form

nonelectrolyte solutions.

• If we could see the individual molecules in a nonelectrolyte solution, we

would see the intact solute molecules dispersed among the solvent
molecules.
• A strong electrolyte is a substance that is present almost entirely as ions in
solution. Examples: Strong acids, HCl, HBr, etc

Strong bases: - NaOH

Ionic compounds, salts: - NaCl

• A weak electrolyte is a substance that is incompletely ionized in solution;

- most of the molecules remain intact.

Examples:- Acetic acid is a weak electrolyte:

- In aqueous solution at normal concentrations, only a small fraction

of CH3COOH molecules separate into hydrogen ions, H+ and acetate ions,

CH3CO2-.
Note: One way to distinguish strong and weak electrolytes is to measure the
abilities of their solutions to conduct electricity:

- For the same molar concentration of solute, a solution of strong electrolyte

is a better conductor than a solution of a weak electrolyte.

Q Identify each of the following substances as an electrolyte or a

nonelectrolyte and predict which will conduct electricity when dissolved in
water: (a) NaOH; (b) Br2, (c) ethanol, CH3CH2OH (aq); (d) Pb(NO3)2(aq).
• Precipitation reaction: Is the formation of an insoluble salt when two
solutions containing soluble salts are combined.

• The insoluble salt that falls out of solution is known as the precipitate

• When an insoluble substance is formed in water, it immediately

precipitates.

• In the chemical equation for a precipitation reaction, we use (aq) to

indicate substances that are dissolved in water and (s) to indicate the
solid that has precipitated.
 Ionic and net ionic equations

• A complete ionic equation for a precipitation reaction shows all the

species as they actually exist in solution;
- dissolved ionic compounds exist as separate aqueous ions, the ions
are shown separately.
For example, the complete ionic equation for the silver chloride
precipitation reaction is shown below.
Spectator ions appear as both reactants and products side
- They do not participate in the reaction
- Na+ and NO3- ions, in the above reaction.

Canceling the spectator ions leaves the net ionic equation for the
reaction
• The net ionic equation shows that Ag+ ions combine with Cl- ions to
precipitate as solid silver chloride, AgCl.
• A net ionic equation focuses our attention on the change that results
from the chemical reaction
Q When concentrated aqueous solutions of barium nitrate,
Ba(NO3)2, and ammonium iodate, NH4IO3, are mixed, insoluble

barium iodate, Ba(IO3)2, forms. The chemical equation for the

precipitation reaction is

Write the net ionic equation for the reaction

• A complete ionic equation expresses a reaction in terms of the
ions that are present in solution;

• A net ionic equation is the chemical equation that remains

after the cancellation of the spectator ions.
Solubility patterns of common ionic compounds in water
• All nitrates and all common compounds of the Group 1 metals are
soluble;
- they make useful starting solutions for precipitation reactions.
• For example: mercury(I) iodide, Hg2I2, is insoluble.

• It is formed as a precipitate when solutions containing Hg2+ ions

and I- ions are mixed
 Solubility rule for inorganic compounds
Soluble compounds
- compounds of Group 1 elements
- ammonium (NH4+) compounds
- chlorides (Cl-), bromides (Br-), and iodides (I-), except those of Ag+, Hg22+,

and Pb2+ Nitrates (NO3-), acetates (CH3CO2-),

- chlorates (ClO3-), and perchlorates (ClO4-)

- sulfates (SO42-), except those of Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Pb2+, Hg22+, and Ag+
 Insoluble compounds
- carbonates (CO32- ), chromates (CrO42- ), oxalates (C2O42- ), and phosphates

(PO43 -), except those of the Group 1elements and NH4+.

- sulfides (S2- ), except those of the Group 1 and 2 elements and NH4+.
- Hydroxides (OH-) and oxides (O2- ), except those of the Group 1 elements
and Group 2 elements below Period 2.
 PbCl2 is slightly soluble.

 Ag2SO4 is slightly soluble.

 Ca (OH)2 and Sr (OH)2 are sparingly (slightly) soluble; Mg (OH)2 is only

very slightly soluble.
Note. The solubility rules are used to predict the outcomes of precipitation
reactions
Q. Predict the precipitate likely to be formed, if any, when aqueous solutions of
sodium phosphate and lead (II) nitrate are mixed. Write the net ionic equation
for the reaction.

Q. Predict the identity of the precipitate that forms, if any, when aqueous
solutions of ammonium sulfide and copper (II) sulfate are mixed, and write the
net ionic equation for the reaction.
Acid and Bases
Acid: - Substances that have a sharp or sour taste.
- Vinegar, for instance, contains acetic acid, CH3COOH.

Bases or alkalis: - Aqueous solutions of substances that are recognized by their

soapy feel.
- Acids and Bases change the color of certain dyes known as indicators.
- One of the best-known indicators is litmus, vegetable dye obtained from a lichen
- Aqueous solutions of acids turn litmus red
- Aqueous solutions of bases turn it blue.
- “pH meter” provides a rapid way of identifying a solution as acidic or basic:
a pH < denotes an acidic solution
a pH >7 denotes a basic solution
Svante Arrhenius definition of Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution
• An acid is a compound that contains hydrogen and reacts with water to
form hydrogen ions
- Example: HCl, HBr, HI, etc.
• A base is a compound that produces hydroxide ions in water:
- Example: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
• When a molecule of an acid dissolves in water, it donates a
hydrogen ion, H+, to one of the water molecules and forms a
hydronium ion, H3O+.

• For example, when hydrogen chloride, HCl, dissolves in

water, it releases a hydrogen ion to water, and the resulting
solution consists of hydronium ions and chloride ions:
The limitation with the Arrhenius definitions
- They are specific to one particular solvent, water. It does not explain reactions
in non-aqueous phase and gaseous phase.
Excluded acids without hydrogen and bases without hydroxide
AlCl3, KF, Na2CO3
The Brønsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases
• An acid is a proton donor

Example:- HCl, HNO3, CH3COOH

• A base is a proton acceptor:- OH-
 • Monoprotic acid, an acid that can donate only one proton from
each molecule.

• Example:- acetic acid (CH3COOH, HNO3, HCl, etc.

• polyprotic acid, an acid that can donate more than one proton from
each molecule. Example:- Sulfuric acid, H2SO4

• The acidic hydrogen atom in a compound is the hydrogen atom that

can be released as a proton
Q Which of the following compounds are Bronsted acids or bases in
water?
(a) HNO3; (b) C6H6; (c) KOH; (d) C3H5COOH
Lewis definition of acid and bases
Acid is a substances that accepts a pair of electron
• Electrophilic
• Contain vacant or unfilled orbital to accept electron pairs
Base is a substances that donates a pair of electrons
• Nucleophilic
• Should contain a pair of electron to be donated
 Strong and weak acids and bases
• A strong acid is completely deprotonated in solution.
• A weak acid is incompletely deprotonated in solution.
• A strong base is completely protonated in solution.

• A weak base is incompletely protonated in solution

• deprotonation means loss of a proton
• protonation means the gain of a proton
Examples of strong acids

- hydrobromic acid, HBr(aq)

- hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)
- nitric acid, HNO3

- perchloric acid, HClO4

- chloric acid, HClO3

- sulfuric acid, H2SO4 (to HSO4-)

 Examples of strong bases
- Group 1 hydroxides
- alkaline earth metal hydroxides
- Group 1 and Group 2 oxides
Neutralization reaction
• Is the reaction between an acid and a base reaction,

• The ionic compound produced in the reaction is

called a salt.

• The general form of a neutralization reaction of a

strong acid and a metal hydroxide is
 • write the complete ionic equation for the neutralization
reaction between nitric acid and barium hydroxide in water

• The ions common to both sides now cancel, and the net ionic
equation of this reaction is therefore
Q What acid and base solutions could you use to prepare rubidium
nitrate? Write the chemical equation for the neutralization