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Raising a new Generation of Leaders

Chemical Engineering
Course Title: Chemical Engineering Process Analysis 1
Course Code CHE 310
3 Units

Course Lecturer: Engr. (Mrs.) O.G Abatan

and Engr. P. A. Alaba
• The mass concentration of a component of a mixture
or solution is the mass of this component per unit
volume of the mixture (g/cm3, lb /ft3 , kg/in3. , ).

2
• concentration can be used as a conversion factor to
relate the mass (or moles) of a reactant in a mixture to
the volume
• it can also be used to relate the mass (or molar) flow
rate of a component of in continuous stream to the
total volumetric flow rate of the stream.

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• The molar concentration of a component is the number
of moles of the component per unit volume of the
mixture (kmol/m3 , lb-moles/ft3 ,
• The molarity of a solution is the value of the molar
concentration of the solute expressed in gram-moles
solute/liter solution

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• The units parts per million (ppm) and parts per
billion (ppb)3 are used to express the concentrations of
trace species (species present in minute amounts) in
mixtures of gases or liquids. The definitions may refer to
mass ratios (usual for liquids) or mole ratios (usual for
gases) and signify how many parts (grams, moles) of the
species are present per million or billion parts (grams,
moles) of the mixture.
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•  If is the fraction of component , then by definition

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 STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS AND BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATIONS
STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS:

•Stoichiometry is from two Greek words:

•STOICHEION = ELEMENTS
•
•(Quantity) of elements
•METRON = MEASURE
• 
•Stoichiometric coefficients refer to the coefficients in the reactions
(feed) that will balance the coefficients in the products in any
particular chemical reaction.
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• 
•Mathematically:
•If € hi = Number of atoms of the element h in compound i
•
• √ i = Stoichiometric coefficient for each chemical component
• 
• √ i= negative for reactants and positive for products
• 
•Then for each element, we write:
• 
• ∑ € hiVi = 0 for all I compounds
• i

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• EXAMPLES:
• Si Cl4 + H2 ------→ Si + HCl
• (Tetrachlorosilane)
• The above equation is UNBALANCED because:
• On the left (Reactants) Right (Products)
• Si = 1 atom Si = 1 atom
• Cl = 4 atoms Cl = 4 atoms
• H = 2 atoms H = 1 atom
•  

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• BALANCING THE EQUATION:
• 
• We must find the correct number of atoms on the left side (reactants) equal the same number
of atoms on the right side ( products). This is based on the law of Conservation of Mass and
the law of Definite proportions. For the above we need:
• 
• LEFT RIGHT
• Si = 1 atom Si = 1 atom
• Cl = 4 atoms Cl = 4 atoms
• H = 4 atoms H = 4 atom
• 

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• Thus (a) We multiply Cl in HCl by 4
• (b) We multiply H2 in feed by 2
•  
• Si Cl4 + 2H2 ------→ Si + 4HCl
•The equation is balanced.
•Note also that multiplying through any balanced chemical equation by any
integer does not alter the final stoichiometry of the chemical reaction. Eg:
• 

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• 2 Si Cl4 + 4H2 ------→ 2Si + 8HCl -----------(3)
• 1/2 Si Cl4 + H2 ------→ 1/2Si + 2HCl -----------(4)
• 
• From equation 3 we get:
• √ Si Cl4 = -1/2
• √ H2 = -1
• √ Si = +1/2
• √ HCl = +2
• 
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• ∑ hi √i = 0
• i
•  
• For h = Cl , we obtain
• € SiCl4 . √ SiCl4 + € HCl √ HCl = 4 (-1/2) + 1 (2) = 0
•  
•  
• GENERAL EQUATION: We write generally:
• a A + bB --------→ cC + dD
• ←-------
•  

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• Where a, b, c, d are the stoichiometric coefficients, Thus:
• √A A + √ B B + √ c C + √ D D = ∑ € hi √i
= 0
• i
•
• Then, √A = -a √c = +c
• √ B = -b √ D = +d
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• NB: If species is not in an equation, √i = 0
• 
• Eg (1) O2 + 2CO ---------→ 2CO2
• √ O2 = -1 √ CO2 = +2
• √ CO = -2 √ N2 = 0

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 CONVERSION / DEGREE OF COMPLETION
Definition:
Conversion is the fraction of the feed or some (special/key) material in the feed which
is converted into products.

Degree of CONVERSION (Completion):

Degree of Conversion (Completion) of a reaction is the percentage or fraction of the
limiting reactant converted into products.
Moles (or mass) of feed (or a compound in the feed that reacts)
% Conversion = 100 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Moles (or mass) of feed (or cpd in the feed introduced)

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EXAMPLE:
10kg. C7H16 is oxidised to form 14.4 kg of CO2.
Calculate the percentage of conversion.
SOLUTION: C7H16 + 11O2 -----→ 7CO2 + 8H2O

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C7H16 equivalent to 14.4 kg CO2 1kg mol CO2 1kg mol C7H16
X 44.0 kg CO2 7kg mol CO2
CO2 in the product = 0.0468 kg kg mol
C7H16

C7H16 in the reactant (X) = 10kg C7H16 1kg mol C7H16

100.1 kg C7H16 =0.0999kg mol
C7H16

0.0468
% Conversion = -------------------- x 100 = 46.8 % of C7H16
0.0999

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Also using the extent of reaction:
Extent of reaction that actually occurs €
Conversion = 100 ---------------------------------------------------- = ---------
x 100
Extent of reaction that would occur if complete €max
reaction took place
Note: Since the numerator and denominator of the fraction contain the same
units, then
conversion is dimensionless.

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SELECTIVITY

Selectivity is the ratio of the moles of a particular product (usually the desired) product produced to the
moles of another (usually undesired or byproduct) of the product produced in a set of chemical reactions.
Eg: The conversion of methanol into ethylene (C2H4) or propylene (C3H6) by the reactions below.
2CH3 OH ------→ C2H4 + 2H20
3CH3 OH ------→ C3H6 + 3H2O
20
C2H4
15
C3H6
10 10

5 5

0 40 60 80 0 40 60 80
% Conversion of CH3OH % Conversion of CH3OH

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From the above figures,
Conversion of C2H4 ≡ 19 mol %
Conversion of C3H16 ≡ 8 mol %
Selectivity = 19/8 ≡ 2.4 C2H4 per mol C3H6

YIELD
Yield has no fixed definition.
(i) Based of feed, Yield is the amount (Mass or moles) of desired product obtained
divided by the amount of the kg (limiting) reactant feed.
(ii) Yield (based on reactant consumed) is the amount (mass or moles) of desired
product obtained divided by the amount of the key (usually thelimiting) reactant
consumed.
(iii) Yield (based on theoretical consumption of the limiting reactant) is the amount
(mass or moles) of a product obtained divided by the theoretical (expected) amount
of the product that would be obtained based on the limiting reactant in the chemical
reaction equation(s) if it were completely consumed.

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APPLICATION OF STOICHIOMETRY IN REACTIONS WITH MORE THAN ONE
PRODUCT ( MORE THAN ONE REACTION OCCURS)
 
The analysis of limestone raw material gives the following composition:
%
CaCO3 92.89
MgCO3 5.41
Innert 1.7
 
By heating limestone calculate the quantities of the following products:
How many pounds of calcium oxide can be obtained from 1 ton of this grade of
limestone.
How many pounds of CO2 can be gotten per pound of limestone?
How many pounds of limestone are required to produce 1 ton of lime?
Solution:
STEP 1: Note by heating lime, oxides of Ca = (CaO), Mg= (MgO) are produced.
These also include some innert compounds in the oxides.
Also from the decomposition of both CaCO3 and MgCO3 → CO2 is obtained.
STEP 2:

CO2

Limestone REACTOR
Lime
CaO
Heat MgO
Innert

STEP 3: Write out the complete chemical equations:

CaCO3 ----------------------→ CaO + CO2
MgCO3 ----------------------→ MgO + CO2
STEP 4: Fix in the molecular weights by using the Periodic table of
Elements.
Material CaCO3 MgCO3 CaO MgO CO2
Mol.Wt. 100.1 84.32 56.08 40.32 44.0

STEP 5: Choose a basis.

Eg. Basis: 100lb. of limestone
This basis is selected because we can equate pounds to Percent. We could
use tons, kg etc.
STEP 6: Calculate the percentage composition and express the results in
percentage per lb. mole.
Eg. CaCO3 ≡ 92.89% ≡ 92.89 = 0.9280 lb.mol CaO
----------
100 (Mol.Wt)

MgCO3 ≡ 5.41% ≡ 5.41 = 0.0642 lb.mol. MgO

---------
84.32(Mol.Wt)
STEP 7: Do a table to calculate the required quantities of CaO, MgO.
Limestone Solid Products

Material lb=Percent lb.mol Compound lb.mol lb

CaCO3 92.89 0.9280 CaO 0.9280 (0.9280x56.08)=52.04

MgCO3 5.41 0.0642 MgO 0.0642 (0.0642x40.32)=2.59
Innert 1.70 -------- Innert -------- 1.70
Total 100.00 0.9922 Total 0.9922 56.33
 

Calculation of CO2 produced:

 
0.9280 lb.mol.CaO ≡ 0.9280 lb mol CO2
0.0642 lb.mol.MgO ≡ 0.0642 lb mol CO2
Total ≡ 0.9922 lb. mol. Of CO2
 
* There is no innert in CO2
1 lb mol of CO2 ≡ 44.0 lb CO2
0.9922 lb mol of CO2 ≡ 0.9922 x 44.0 lb. CO2
≡ 43.66 lb. CO2 ≈ 43.7 lb
Check: CO2 produced = Weight of Limestone
= (Wt of CaO + Wt of MgO + Innert ) = (100 - 56.33) lb = 43.67 lb ≈
43.7 lb CO2
To calculate CaO produced;
Basis = 100 lb CaCO3

   
52.04 lb CaO 2000 lb

100 lb limestone 1 Ton

= 1040.8 lb CaO
 
(ii) CO2 recovered = 43.65 lb CO2
---------------------- = 0.437 lb CO2
100 lb CaCO3
 
(iii ) CaCO3 required =

   
100 lb Ca 2000

56.33 lb lime 1 Ton

= 3550 lb CaCO3
(iv ) For 125 Tons = 3550 x 125 = 443725 lb
 
Alternatives:
100 lb Limestone (CaCO3) ≡ 52.04 lb CaO
 
52.04
1 -----------------------→ = ------------
100
 
52.04
2000 -------------------→ = ------------ x 2000 = 1041 lb CaO
100
 
Also: 56.33 lb CaO ≡ 100 lb CaCO3

100
2000 lb -------------------→ = ------------ x 2000 = 3550.5 ≈ 3550 lb
CaCO3
56.33
For 125 Tons = 3550 x 125 = 443725 lb
 
ASSIGNMENT:
Balance the equation:
Ca2S + Fe2 (SO4)3 ------------→ CuSO4 + FeSO4 + S
In the above reaction, 10 Tones of 75% impure Cu2S was reacted with Fe2(SO4)3 to
obtain CuSO4. Find the following:-
The quantity of CuSO4 produced.
The quantity of FeSO4 produced.

2. How many kilograms of chlorine (Cl2) can be produced from 10m3 of brine
solution containing 10% by weight of NaCl if the specific gravity of brine solution
is 1.07. find also the weight of NaOH obtained.

 
 
 

 
 
STOICHIOMETRY OF INCOMPLETE
REACTIONS
INTRODUCTION:
When inadequate (smaller than required stoichiometry quantity) of reactants are fed into the
reactor, such reaction cannot go to completion. The following are important terms to properly
describe the reaction.

Extent of Reaction §
Extent of reaction (§) denotes to what extent a reaction occurs in any particular chemical reaction.
It is calculated as the ratio of change in the number of moles of species in a reaction or product to
the relative stoichiometric coefficient.

Eg: Combustion of carbon monoxide

2CO + O2 ------→ 2CO2
20 moles of CO are fed into a reactor with 10 moles of O 2 to form 15 moles of CO2. Calculate the
extent of reaction.

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SOLUTION:
Change of moles of CO2 = 15 – 0 = 15
Stoichiometric coefficient of CO2 = +2
Extent of reaction = (15-0) mol of CO2 = 7.5 moles reacting
-------------------------------
2 mol CO2 / moles reaction

FOR INCOMPLETE REACTION, we have

ɳί - ɳί0

§ = -------------- --------(1)
Vί

Where ɳ ί = moles of ί present in the system after reaction occurs.

ɳ ί 0 = moles of ί present at the beginning of reaction (START)
Vί = coefficient of species of ί in a particular chemical reaction
§ = Extent of reaction (moles reacting)
Equation 1 above can also be written as

ɳί = ɳί0 +§ Vί ---------(2)

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 EXAMPLE:
The data below obtained from the synthesis of ammonia by the equation:
N2 + 3H2 -------→ 2NH3
Feed Product
N2 100g
H2 50g
NH3 5g 90g

(i) Determine (§ ) – the extent of reaction.

(ii) Find the gram and gram mole of N2 and H2 in the product.
(iii) Determine the acid rain potential (ARP) of the NH 3.
HINT: Acid Rain Potential is the number of moles of H + created per moles of compound from
which the H+ are created.
For NH3: NH3 + 2O2 --------→ H+ + NO 3 - + H2O
The above is usually normalized by a reference compound usually SO 2 by the reaction for SO2
acidification.
SO2: SO2 + H2O + O3 --------→ 2H+ + SO4 2- + O2

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 mol H+ ί
MWί
ARP = mole SO 2
MW SO2

SOLUTION: N2 + 3H2 ------→ 2NH3

mol. Wt 28 6 34

ɳί = 90g NH 3 1g mole NH3 = 5.294 g

17 g NH3

ɳί0 = 5g NH3 1g mole NH3 = 0.294 g

17 g NH3

§ = ɳί - ɳί0 = 5.294 – 0.294 = 2.50 moles

2 g mol NH3
vί
Remember = ɳί = ɳί0 +§ vί
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 N2 : ɳ ί 0 = 100 g N2 1g mol N2 = 3.579 mol N2
28g N2
ɳ N2 = 3.57 + (-1) (2.5) = 1.07 g mol N2

N2 = 1.07 g mol N2 28 g N2 = 30g N2

1 g mol N2

H2: ɳί0 = 50 g H2 1g mol H2 = 25g mol H2

2 g H2

ɳ N2 = 25 + (-3)(2.5) = 17.5 g mol H2

m N2 = 17.5 g mol H2 2g H2 = 35
1g mol H2
ARP = (1/17) / (2/64) = 1/17 x 64/2
ARP = 1.88

N.B : § has same value for each molecular species in a particular chemical reaction.

Also: ɳί = ɳ ί 0 + ∑ R k=1Vkί §k
For species ί in the K th reaction
ɳ ί = total number of species ί 34
35
• The most common mechanical device used for pressure
measurement is a bourdon gauge, which is a hollow tube
closed at one end and bent into a configuration. The open
end of the tube is exposed to the fluid whose pressure is
to be measured. As the pressure increases, the tube tends
to straighten, causing a pointer attached to the tube to
rotate. The position of the pointer on a calibrated dial
gives the pressure of the fluid.
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