Mrs.

Anamika Sahu Gulbake

 Cell is the structural and functional unit of
life.
 Cell is the smallest functional unit of body.
Introduction of cell
 Discovered by Robert Hooke
 The cell is the structural & functional basic unit of life.
 It is the functional unit of all known living organisms.
 It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living
thing, and is often called the building block of life.
  Organisms can be classified as
  unicellular : consisting of a single cell; including
most bacteria.
 multicellular : including plants and animals.
 Humans contain about 100 trillion cells;
 a typical cell size is 10 µm and a typical cell mass is 1 
nanogram.
 The largest known cells are unfertilised ostrich egg cells,
which weigh 3.3 pounds.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

prokaryotes Vs eukaryotes

the champion the challenger

 All cells fall into one of the two major classifications of

prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
 Prokaryotes were here first and for billions of years were
the only form of life. Why are eukaryotes such a formidable
challenge?
prokaryotes  Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms,
found in all environments.
 Prokaryotes are the largest group of
organisms, mostly due to the vast array of
bacteria which comprise the bulk of the
prokaryote classification.

 Characteristics:
 No nuclear membrane (genetic material
dispersed throughout cytoplasm)
 No membrane-bound organelles
 Simple internal structure
 Most primitive type of cell (appeared about
four billion years ago)

 Examples:
 Staphylococcus
 Escherichia coli (E. coli)
 Streptococcus
eukaryotes  Eukaryotes are generally more advanced than
prokaryotes.
 There are many unicellular organisms which
are eukaryotic, but all cells in multicellular
organisms are eukaryotic.

 Characteristics:
 Nuclear membrane surrounding genetic
material
 Numerous membrane-bound organelles
 Complex internal structure
 Appeared approximately one billion years ago

 Examples:
 Paramecium
 Dinoflagellates
 sapiens
Comparison of features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

characteristic Prokaryotes eukaryotes

protists, fungi, plants, 
Typical organisms bacteria, archaea
animals
~ 10–100 µm (sperm cells,
Typical size ~ 1–10 µm apart from the tail, are
smaller)
nucleoid region; real nucleus with double
Type of nucleus
no real nucleus membrane
linear molecules (
DNA circular (usually) chromosomes) with histone 
proteins
RNA-synthesis inside the
nucleus
RNA-/protein-synthesis coupled in cytoplasm
protein synthesis in
cytoplasm
Binary fission (simple Mitosis (fission or budding)
Cell division
division) Meiosis
 Ribosomes 50S+30S 60S+40S

highly structured by
Cytoplasmatic structure very few structures endomembranes and a 
cytoskeleton
flagella and cilia containing 
microtubules; lamellipodia
Cell movement flagella made of flagellin
 and filopodia containing 
actin
one to several thousand
Mitochondria none (though some lack
mitochondria)

Chloroplasts none in algae and plants

single cells, colonies, higher

Organization usually single cells multicellular organisms with
specialized cells
Comparison B/W Typical animal cell Typical plant cell

• Nucleus • Nucleus
 Nucleolus  Nucleolus
(within nucleus)  (within nucleus)
 Rough (ER)  Rough ER
 Smooth ER  Smooth ER
 Ribosomes  Ribosomes
 Cytoskeleton  Cytoskeleton
Organelles  Golgi apparatus  Golgi apparatus
 Cytoplasm (dictiosomes)
 Mitochondria  Cytoplasm
 Vesicles  Mitochondria
 Lysosomes  Plastids and its derivatives
 Centrosome  Vacuole(s)
 Centrioles  Cell wall
 The Cell Organelles

 A cell consists of a plasma membrane inside which there are a

number of organelles floating in a watery fluid called Cytosol.
 Organelles are small structures with highly specialized function.
 They include…............
Nucleus
Structure

 It is the most imp part of cell which control & direct cellular
activities thus it is also called as control room of the cell.
 In eukaryotic cells nucleoplasm is found enclosed within a
membrane called as nuclear membrane to form nucleus.
 Generally it is spherical shaped but it may be cylindrical flattened
branched prismatic lobed or horse shoe shaped.
 It is situated in the center of cell surrounded by cytoplasm.
 It contain the body’s genetic material which direct the activity of cell.
This is build from DNA & proteins called histones coiled together
forming a fine network of threads called Chromatin.
 During cell division Chromatin replicates & becomes more tightly
coiled forming Chromosomes.
 FUNCTION
The nucleus is the control center of a cell as such it is the most
important part of the cell.
 The control arises from the genetic information stored in the nucleus.
 Genes are made of the nucleic acid DNA.
 Genes are indirectly responsible for making proteins which do the
work of the cell.
Nucleus is related with biogenesis of ribosomes.
It’s play major role in the mitosis ,if nucleus is injured by some source
the mitosis is permanently stopped.
It synthesizing RNA which is essential for protein syn. Nucleus control
all vital activities of the cell. It regulate cell growth.
 Parts of nucleus

 Chromosomes
- Usually in the form of chromatin
- Contains genetic information
- Composed of DNA
- Thicken for cellular division
- Set number per species (i.e. 23 pairs for human)
Nuclear membrane

- Surrounds nucleus
- Composed of two layers
- Numerous openings for nuclear traffic

Nucleolus
-Spherical shape
- Visible when cell is not dividing
- Contains RNA for protein manufacture
 Plasma membrane
STRUCTURE

 The plasma membrane is made up of a bilayer of phospholipids.

 Many specialized proteins are found floating in the bilayer and are
necessary for homeostasis. Because the lipid bilayer is fluid
numerous pores or openings are created as the phospholipids swirl
about. This makes the membrane selectively permeable to small
molecules.
 Large molecules rarely make it through these pores.
 The phospholipid molecules have a head which is electrically
charged & hydrophilic and a tail has no charge & is hydrophobic.
 Phospholipids bilayer is arranged like a sandwich with the
hydrophilic head aligned on the outer surface of the membrane &
hydrophobic tails forming a central water- repelling layer.
 These differences influence the transfer of subs across membrane.
FUNCTION
 The plasma membrane is also a vital component of cellular control.
 Its responsibility is to restrict what can enter or leave the cell. This
process is called homeostasis.
 Function of membrane protein
 They can act as specific receptors for hormones and other chemical
messenger.
 Some are enzymes.
 Some are involved in transport across membrane.
CELL WALL

 STRUCTURE
 Cell walls are a strong collection of laminated fibers.
 Each fiber contains hundreds of strands of cellulose.
(Cellulose, is a macromolecule composed of glucose
monomers (subunits).
 Most commonly found in plant cells
- Controls turgity
- Extracellular structure surrounding plasma membrane
 TYPE
-Primary cell wall: extremely elastic
-Secondary cell wall: forms around primary cell wall after
 growth is complete.
FUNCTION
 Plants have cell walls which are located outside
the plasma membrane.
 Animal cells lack cell walls.
 The cell wall gives the plant strength and
allows plants cells to fill with water creating an
internal pressure called turgor pressure.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Structure
 ER is a complex vacuolar system extending from the nucleus
throughout cytoplasm to the margins of cell.
 This vacuolar system is nothing else but is a spaces enclosed folded
mass of double membrane made of the same phospholipid found in
plasma membrane.
 There are two types of ER
 Smooth (without ribosomes): found in those cells which are almost
inactive in protein synthesis.
e.g. Adipose cell, leucocytes, retinal cell.
 Rough (with ribosomes): ribosomes play a vital role in protein syn.
 Rough or granular ER is found in those cells which are actively
involved in protein synthesis.
e.g. pancreatic cells, plasma cells and liver cells.
 Function

 This folded membrane forms sacs to store proteins or

other substances.
 It creates a vast surface area where the manufacture of
proteins and new membranes can take place.
Ribosomes
Structure

 Cells normally have millions of ribosomes, each ribosome has two

parts which come together during protein synthesis.
 A ribosome is made of numerous proteins and RNA.
 Miniature 'protein factories‘
 Composes 25% of cell's mass

Type
- Stationary type: embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum

- Mobile type: injects proteins directly into cytoplasm

Function
 Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis
Types of ribosomes
 On the basis of size and sedimentation coefficients two
types of ribosomes have been identified.
 70s ribosomes :
 these are smaller in size and their sedimentation coefficients is 70s.
 They are found in prokaryotic cell of blue green algae and chloroplast
of eukaryotic cells
 It have two subunits of 50s and 30s.
 50s is larger in size (160-180 A◦) & 30s subunit is smaller in size.
 80s ribosomes:
 80s are slightly larger than 70s ribosome.
 They have sedimentation coefficients of 80s.
 These ribosomes occur in eukaryotic cells of the plants and animals.
 It have also two subunits of 60s and 40s.
 60s subunit is larger in size & 40s subunit is smaller in size.
Golgi complex
 Structure
 The Golgi complex looks like a stack of pancakes made of
membranes with smaller vacuoles or vesicles on either side of the
main structure.
 Protein 'packaging plant‘
 A membrane structure found near nucleus
 - Composed of numerous layers forming a sac
 Golgi complex is found in all eukaryotic cell except RBCs.
 Italian scientist named Camello Golgi discovered it in 1898. this
organelle is named after its discoverer Golgi.
 In animal cell 3-7 and in plant cell 10-12 Golgi complex are found
but in some lower animal cells only 1 Golgi body is found.
Function

 The main function of Golgi body is secretion.

 The Golgi complex takes proteins made by the
endoplasmic reticulum and exports them out of the cell
as needed.
 Secretory vesicles move towards the plasma membrane
and bursts on cell surface releasing their contents.
 Lysosomes are formed from Golgi bodies.
 It helps in synthesis of large molecules of complex
carbohydrates.
 Plant secretory products like gum, wax, mucilage etc. are
released by these bodies.
 Lysosome
 Structure
 Lysosomes (Gr. Lyso =digestive, somes=body)
 A membrane bound sac lysosomes are a small vacuoles or
vesicles in the cytoplasm filled with digestive enzymes.
 They bud off from the Golgi complex , which perform
intracellular digestion of the cell.
 Lysosomes are present in all animal cells and in few plant cells.
 Animal cells which are secretory in function like liver cells,
spleen cells, pancreatic cells, kidney cells and thyroid cells
contain large number of lysosomes.
Function
 Lysosomes are only needed by animal cells. They help break
down and remove old worn out cell parts.
 They are also involved in the digestion of food particles brought
into the cell through infoldings in the plasma membrane.
 They digest the large extra cellular particles like foreign proteins,
bacteria and viruses etc.
 Lysosomes digest the intracellular food contents like
carbohydrates, fats and proteins to supply energy during
starvation.
 In some pathogenic conditions they show Autolysis i.e. digestion
of some cell organelles.
 The lysosomes initiate the mitosis cell division.
Vacuole

 Structure
  Vacuoles are membrane bound sacs with little or no
internal structure.
 Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste
removal
- Contains water solution
- Contractile vacuoles for water removal (in unicellular
organisms)
 Function

 Vacuoles are generally used to store cell products or

protect the rest of the cell from invading
microorganisms.

 The large central vacuole of plant cells is a special case.

It is used to store water and cellular wastes and helps
maintain the necessary internal pressure of plants called
turgor pressure.
Mitochondria
 Structure
 It is cytoplasm organelles which is seen in the forms of short
thread like structure under light microscope therefore named as
mitochondria ( GK mitos= thread & chondrion = granules or
particle.
 Mitochondria found in both plants and animals.
 Second largest organelle with unique genetic structure
 Mitochondria are oval, sometimes branching organelles which
have a double membrane.
 The pair of membranes create two compartments one of which
is used to store hydrogen ions. This gives mitochondria an
electrical potential like a miniature battery.
 The inner membrane of mitochondria is highly folded. The rod-
like folds are called a cristae.
 Energy-producing chemical reactions take place on cristae 
mitochondria
 Function
 Mitochondria perform most imp function like oxidation,
dehydrogenation.
 Mitochondria are actual respiratory centers of cells where
the carbohydrates & fats are completely oxidized into
carbon dioxide & water. Energy released during this
process is stored in Mitochondria in the form of ATP.
This ATP is used for various vital activities. Thus
Mitochondria are called the power houses of the cell.
 They convert the energy in the bonds of glucose and
oxygen to readily available energy in the form of ATP
This process is called aerobic respiration.
Chloroplasts

 Structure
 Chloroplasts are a double membrane organelles. Like
mitochondria two compartments are formed one of which
stores hydrogen ions.
 The inner membranes of chloroplasts are called thylakoids.
The thylakoids often form coin-like stacks called grana.
 Function
 Chloroplasts are large organelles found in plants cells which
are responsible for photosynthesis. (Plants use photosynthesis
to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose.)
 Chloroplasts are green because of the pigment chlorophyll.
 Plants can store other pigments in organelles similar to
chloroplasts. Tomatoes have plastids which store a red
pigment.
 Cytoskeleton
 Structure
 The cytoskeleton is made of a network of protein fibers, filaments,
and tubules.
 They attach to special proteins on the interior surface of the plasma
membrane forming a semisolid region called a gel.
 Composed of microtubules

 Function
 It forms skeleton of cell & help in maintaining the shape of cell.
 The cytoskeleton provides support and movement for a cell and its
organelles.
 Organelles can be from place to place in a cell by attaching to
microtubule track ways.
 The various shapes of cells are controlled by the cytoskeleton.
 it forms the skeleton of flagella, cilia & spindle during cell division.
 It help in cyclosis of the cytoplasm.
 Aids movement of materials in and out of cells.
Cilia and Flagella
 Structure
 Each cilia (or flagella) is a circular series of 9 pairs of
microtubules (often containing an additional central pair of
tubules) surrounded by a long slender sheath of plasma
membrane.
 Cilia and flagella are used primarily by animal cells for
movement.
 Flagella are larger single versions of cilia. Cilia are short
but numerous compared to flagella.
 Function - cilia moves fluids along a cell’s surface.
- A flagellum moves an entire cell.

 
 Mechanism Of Transport

 There are several mechanisms of transport that enable cell

to move materials into or out of cell.
 Mechanisms are Diffusion, Osmosis, Facilated diffusion,
Active transport, Filtration, Phagocytosis, Pinocytosis.
 Some of these take place without the expending of energy
by cells but others do require energy, often in form of ATP
 Each of these mechanism is described in the following
sections and an example is included to show how each is
important to body.
 Mechanism Definition Example in body

1. Diffusion Movement of molecules Exchange of gases in the

from area of greater lungs or body tissues.
concentration to an area of
lesser concentration.
2. Osmosis A special form of diffusion Absorption of water by the
involving water moving small intestine & kidneys.
across a selectively
permeable membrane.
3. Active transport Movement of molecules Absorption of amino avid
from area of lesser & glucose from food by the
concentration to an area of cells of small intestine.
grater concentration
(require ATP)
4. Filtration Movement of water and Formation of tissue fluid;
dissolved substances from the first step in formation of
an area of high pressure to urine.
an area of lower pressure
(blood pressure)
5. Phagocytosis A moving cell engulfs White blood cell engulfs
something. bacteria.

6. Pinocytosis A stationary cell engulfs Cells of kidney tubules

something. reabsorb small protein.