RESEARCH DESIGN

• Research design is a blue print or structure within which research is

conducted

• It constitutes the blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of

data
• It is general strategy for conducting a research study
• The nature of the hypothesis, the variables involved, and the
constraints of the real world all contribute to the selection of design
 Cont.…
• Decisions regarding WHAT?, WHERE?, WHEN?, HOW MUCH?,
by WHAT? are all constitute a research design

• Research design should be able to convey following:

 What is the study about?

 Where will study be carried out?

 What type of data is necessary?

 Cont.…
 Where necessary data is available?

 How much time is needed to complete study?

 What will be the sampling design?

 Which tools will be identified to collect data?

 How data will be analysed? and the like

 Cont.…
• Depending upon the types of research, the structure of design may vary

• If it is an experimental research, then identification of variables, control

of variables, types of experimental design etc. be discussed properly

• If it is qualitative research, we have to understand setting, nature of data,

holistic approach, selection of participants, inductive data analysis etc.

• In short, any efficient research design will help the researcher to carry out
the study in a systematic way
 Purpose of research design
• It helps the investigator to obtain answers to research problem and issues
involved in the research

• It also tells us about how to collect data, what observation are to be made,
how to make them, how to analyse the data etc.

• It guides the investigator about statistical techniques to be used

• It also guides to control certain variables in experimental research

 Cont.…
• There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative
research and quantitative research.

A. Qualitative research

 It is collecting data in the form of words, images, video etc

 Aims to investigate a question without attempting to quantifiably

measure variables

 It is viewed as more restrictive in testing hypotheses because it

can be expensive and time-consuming 7
 Cont.…
 Often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later
quantitative research hypotheses
 Linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of
social constructionism
 This is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions
and behaviour.
 Cont…
B. Quantitative research
 This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative
properties and phenomena and their relationships, and collecting
numerical data to analyze it utilizing statistical methods
 The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and
survey (or descriptive)
 Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the
existence of associative or causal relationships between variables
 It is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism
 Concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or being
able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.
 Cont….
One may split the overall research design into the following parts:
(a) the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be
observed for the given study
(b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the
observations are to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items
are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be
analysed; and
(d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be
carried out.
 Cont….
• A research design appropriate for a particular research
problem, usually involves the consideration of the following factors:

(i) the means of obtaining information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if
any;

(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;

(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and

(v) the availability of time and money for the research work
 Determining Sample Design
• Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by
taking a sample.
• A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent
the population as a whole.
• Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the
researcher to make accurate estimates of the thoughts and
behaviour of the larger population.
 Cont…
 Designing the sample calls for three decisions:
• Who will be surveyed? ( The Sample)
– The researcher must determine what type of information is
needed and who is most likely to have it.
• How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
– Large samples give more reliable results than small samples
– However it is not necessary to sample the entire target
population.
• How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
– Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire
population.( probability sample)
– The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain
information from ( nonprobability sample)
 Types of Sampling methods
1. Probability samples : means that every member of the population
has a chance of being selected.
– It is mainly used in quantitative research.
– If you want to produce results that are representative of the
whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most
valid choice.
2. Non Probability samples :individuals are selected based on non-
random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being
included.
– This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a
higher risk of sampling bias.
– That means the inferences you can make about the population
are weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions
may be more limited.
i) Probability samples
1. Simple random sampling: Every member of the population has
a known and equal chance of being selected.
2. Systematic Sampling: is similar to simple random sampling, but it
is usually slightly easier to conduct.
– Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen
at regular intervals.
– It is also called an Nth name selection technique
3. Stratified random sampling: involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways.
– It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that
every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
4. Cluster(area)sampling: involves dividing the population into subgroups,
but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample.
– Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly
select entire subgroups
ii) Nonprobability sampling
1. Convenience sampling(Accidental sampling): includes the individuals
who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
– This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is
no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it
can’t produce generalizable results.
– Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection
bias.
2. Purposive sampling: also known as judgement sampling, involves
the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most
useful to the purposes of the research
– An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and
rationale for inclusion.
3. Quota sampling: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed
number of people in each of several categories.
4. Snowball sampling: If the population is hard to access, snowball
sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants.
The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you get in
contact with more people. The downside here is also
representativeness, as you have no way of knowing how representative
your sample is due to the reliance on participants recruiting others. This
can lead to sampling bias.
 Data collection and analysis:
• Data collection is a systematic process of
gathering observations or measurements.
• While you are performing research data
collection allows you to gain first-hand
knowledge and original insights into your 
research problem.
• While methods and aims may differ between
fields, the overall process of data collection
remains largely the same.
• Before you begin collecting data, you need to
consider:
– The aim of the research
– The type of data that you will collect
– The methods and procedures you will use to
collect, store, and process the data
Types of data collection methods
1. Primary data collection
2. Secondary data collection
Primary data collection: is data collection method where
data are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character.
Secondary data collection: on the other hand, are those
which have already been collected by someone else and
which have already been passed through the statistical
process.
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
There are several methods of collecting primary data:
i. Observation method
ii. Survey method
iii. Contact methods
iv. Experimental method
i. Observation method
• the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation
without asking from the respondent.
• For instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator
instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by the respondent, may
himself look at the watch.
• e.g. Observing numerous plates containing uneaten portions the same
menu items indicates that food is not satisfactory.
• The main advantage of this method is that
– subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately
– the information obtained under this method relates to what
is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the
past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes
– this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to
respond
Limitations:
• feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behaviour
and infrequent behaviour cannot be observed.
• expensive method
• Because of these limitations, researchers often supplement
observation with survey research.
SURVEY METHOD
• Approach most suited for gathering descriptive information.
 Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all
respondents in the same way.
 Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents
and guide the interview according to their answers.
• Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.
 Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about
behaviours and thoughts. e.g. Why don’t you eat at
MacDonalds?
 Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of
people eat at MacDonald’s?”
• From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the
consumer avoids MacDonald’s. It may suggest factors of which the
consumer is not consciously aware.
ADVANTAGES:
-can be used to collect many different kinds of information
-Quick and low cost as compared to observation and
experimental method.
LIMITATIONS:
-Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by
unknown interviewers about things they consider private.
-Busy people may not want to take the time -may try to help
by giving pleasant answers
-unable to answer because they cannot remember or never
gave a thought to what they do and why
-may answer in order to look smart or well informed.
CONTACT METHODS:
• Information may be collected by mail, telephone or personal
interview.
 Mail Questionnaires:
• Advantages:
-can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost
per respondent. -respondents may give more honest answers to
personal questions on a mail questionnaire
-no interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.
-convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time -
good way to reach people who often travel
• Limitations:
-not flexible
-take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview
-response rate is often very low
researcher has no control over who answers.
Telephone Interviewing:
– quick method
– more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the
respondent
– depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more
on others
– allows greater sample control
– response rate tends to be higher than mail
• Drawbacks:
– Cost per respondent higher
– Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
– Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
– Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of
ways
– under time pressure, data may be entered without actually interviewing
Personal Interviewing:
• It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of
information.
• Trained interviewers are can hold the respondent’s attention and
are available to clarify difficult questions.
• They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the
situation requires.
• Personal interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and
can be conducted fairly quickly.
• Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements,
packages and observe and record their reactions and behaviour.
This takes two forms-
– Individual- Intercept interviewing
– Group - Focus Group Interviewing
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
• Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is a
data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified with observation or experiment.
• Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that
certain variables affect other variables in some way.
e.g.
– Tenderisers ( independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of
meat( dependent variable) .
– The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such as
soya flour to flour for making high protein bread.
– Develop recipes to use products.
• Such research is characterised by the experimenter’s control over the
variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to
study its effects.
• In such a research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source,
and actively go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of
desired information.
• Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the
probable results.
• Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
• He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the
persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information.
• Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is
considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis.
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
• Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they
refer to the data which have already been collected and
analysed by someone else.
• When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has to
look into various sources from where he can obtain them.
• In this case he is certainly not confronted with the problems
that are usually associated with the collection of original data.
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