PRINCIPLES OF

ELECTRIC &
ELECTRONICS
BELG
Semester 1123
2, 2023/2024
1

05/24/2024
 CLASS POLICY
• Be punctual to lecture & tutorial
• Pay attention to class,take notes when
necessary
• Silence out all handphones
• If get bored/sleepy....get out, wash your
face & come back.
• Submit your assignments/any tasks given
on time
• Attire properly

Chapter 1 2
Chapter 1 3
Chapter 1 4
 WHAT IS OBE
 OBE = Outcome Based Education
 A system focusing what is important for all
students to be able to do successfully at the end of
their learning experiences.
 This means starting with a clear picture of what
is important for students to be able to do, then
organizing the curriculum, instruction, and
assessment to make sure this learning ultimately
happens” (Spady, 1994).

Chapter 1 5
 OBE TERM'S
• Program Educational
PEO Objectives

PO • Program Outcomes

LO • Learning Outcomes

Chapter 1 6
OBE PYRAMID
Vision &
Mission

PEO

PO

LO

Assessment & Evaluation

Chapter 1 7
 PEO
PEO: Program Educational Objectives
specific goals consistent with the mission and
vision of the university,
expected achievements of graduates in
their career and professional life few years
after graduation.

Chapter 1 8
 PO
PO = Programme Outcome
Describe what students are expected to
know and be able to perform or attain by
the time of graduation.
Relate to the skills, knowledge, and
behaviour/attitude that students acquire
through the programme.

Chapter 1 9
SUBJECT MATERIAL

ULEARN
MS TEAM

Chapter 1 10
 LO Description

Explain the basic principles of electrical and electronics components ,

LO1
terminologies, configuration, laws and rules (PO1, C3, WP1, WK1, WK3)

Apply appropriate circuit analysis methods to solve DC (resistive) circuits

LO2
problems (PO1, C3, WP1, WK1, WK3)
Analyse circuits containing semiconductor devices (PO1, C3, WP1, WK1,
LO3
WK3)
Assessment Marks Code LO1 LO2 LO3 PO1 Total PO
Assignments 10.0% TG-1 15.0% 15.0% 15.0%
QZ-1 2.5% 2.5% 2.5%
Quizzes 5.0%
QZ-2 2.5% 2.5% 2.5%
MT-1 15.0% 15.0% 15.0%
Mid Term Test 20.0%
MT-2 5.0% 5.0% 5.0%
15% PA-1 15.0% 15.0%
Final Examination 15% PA-2 15.0% 15.0%
( Compulsory: Q1- 15% PA-3 15.0% 15.0% 60.0%
Q4 15% (10% for
WP1)
PA-4/PA-5 15.0% 15.0%
Total 100% TOTAL 15.0% 32.5% 52.5% 100.0%

Chapter 1 11
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Basic Electric System
1.2 Electrical Circuits
1.3 Electrical Charge
1.4 Electromotive Force (emf) and Potential Difference
1.5 Voltage and Current
1.6 Systems of Units: SI units in Electrical
1.7 Electrical Measurement & Instruments
1.8 Symbols of Electrical Sources & Components
1.9 Circuit Elements: Passive & Active

BELG 1123
Chapter 1 12
Principles of Electric and Electronics
 PART 1: CHAPTER
OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Describe basic electrical systems and the concept of
electrical charge
 Differentiate between EMF and Potential Differential
 Understand the systems of units
 Describe electrical measurement & instruments and the
symbol s of electrical sources & components
 Identify the circuit elements

Chapter 1 13
1.1 BASIC ELECTRIC SYSTEM
Electric system – deals with communication and transfer energy
from one point to another.

Basic electrical system consists of 4 elements: Source, Control,

Load and Transmission System (as shown in Figure 1)

Source Transmission
Control Transmission
Load
System System
Chapter 1 14
Figure 1: Electrical system
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (CONT.)
 Source - Provide electrical energy to electrical
system (i.e., DC or AC source). Can be obtained
from battery, generator or socket outlet.

 Control - Control the flow of electrical energy

(i.e., switch). Permits the energy to flow or else
interrupts the flow.

 Load - Absorb the electrical energy and perform

a given task/purpose/work. Most domestic
electrical equipment constitutes loads (i.e.,
motor)

 Transmission system - Conduct and transfer

electrical energy from source to load (i.e., Chapter 1 15

insulated wire)
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (CONT.)

Example 1

Physical configuration Circuit diagram

Figure 2: Torch Light system

Chapter 1 16
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM (CONT.)
Example 2
Conductors/Wires
Switch

Switch
Battery
Wires

Resistance
Headlamps Voltage source

Physical configuration Circuit diagram

Figure 3: Headlight system

Chapter 1 17
 1.2 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Electrical Circuit – consists of various types of circuit
elements connected in closed paths by conductor (refer
Figure 4).

**Circuit elements – resistances,

inductances, capacitances and
voltage/current sources.

Figure 4: Electrical circuit

Voltage sources create forces that cause charge to flow through
the conductors and other circuit elements, so energy transferred
between the circuit elements. Chapter 1 18
 1.3 ELECTRICAL CHARGE

Figure 5: Atom Bohr model

• Electrical Charge – also known

electricity.

• Two types of electric

charge: positive and negative

• The elementary physics that all

matter is made of atoms and
each atoms consists of
electrons, protons and
19
neutrons. Chapter 1
 ELECTRIC CHARGE (CONT.)
 The presence of equal numbers of
protons and electrons leaves an
atom neutrally charged.
 Some atoms hold their electrons
loosely (when force is applied)
especially electrons that are located
at valence shell (outermost shell). Figure 6: Inside of Atom

Figure 7: Transfer of free electron to another Atom

 The loose electrons (free electron) can be transferred into
another atoms.
 When an electron escapes from the atom – becomes positive ion
(because of removed electron).
 When atom acquire an electron – becomes negative ion (because
the holes are filled with electrons). Chapter 1 20
 ELECTRIC CHARGE (CONT.)
 Electrical charge – an electrical property of matter that exists
because of an excess or defiance of electrons.

 Charges can be measured in coulomb

1 Coulomb (C)= 6.24 x 1018 electrons
1 electron = 1/6.24 x 1018 = 1.602 x 10 -19 C

 Materials with charges of opposite

polarity attracted.
Figure 8: Attraction of opposite charge

 Materials with charges of same

polarity are repelled.
Figure 9: Repelled of same charge
Chapter 1 21
1.4 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf)
VS. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
emf Potential difference
Emf is the electrical potential difference Potential is a function of the location,
provided by an energy source like and potential difference between point
battery. A and point B is calculated by
subtracting the potential of A from
Varying magnetic fields also can potential of B.
generate an emf according to the
Faraday’s law. In an electric field, it is the amount
work to be done to move a unit charge
Although EMF is also a voltage and (+1 Coulomb) from B to A.
measured in Volts (V), it is all about
the generation of a potential Electric potential difference is
difference. measured in V (Volts). In an electrical
circuit, current flows from the higher
potential to lower potential.

Chapter 1 22
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) VS.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (CONT.)
Therefore, the important differences between emf and potential
difference are:
1. The term ‘potential difference’ is used in all energy fields
(electric, magnetic, gravitational), and ‘emf’ is only used in
electric circuits.
2. Emf is the electrical potential difference generated by a
source like battery or generator.
3. We can measure potential difference between any two
points, but emf exists only between the two ends of a
source.
4. Sum of ‘potential drops’ around a circuit is equal to total
emf according to Kirchhoff’s second law.

Chapter 1 23
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) VS.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (CONT.)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EMF AND VOLTAGE
EMF Voltage
It denotes the voltage produced inside the It is the difference potential difference
electric source. between two points
External forces work in moving a charge It is the work in moving a charge from one
from one pole to another pole inside a pole to another through a wire
source
E = I * (R + r) V=I*R
It follows the coulomb force operation It follows a non-coulomb force operation

It measured with EMF meter It is measured with a voltmeter

It is always greater than the voltage It is always lesser than EMF
Its intensity is constant Its intensity is not constant
EMF is caused in a gravitational, electric Voltage is caused only in the electric field
or magnetic field
Chapter 1 24
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) VS.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (CONT.)
 The voltage across the terminals of a battery, for example, is
less than the emf when the battery supplies current,
 Terminal voltage is the potential difference at the terminals of
the circuit. Even if there is no load, still the terminal voltage will
be less than the emf due to drop across the internal resistance
of the supply.
 Terminal voltage is given by the equation:

V = emf – I*r
Where:
r is the internal resistance and
I is the current flowing at the time of the measurement.

Chapter 1 25
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) VS.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (CONT.)
INTERNAL BATTERY RESISTANCE
 If the internal resistance is zero, the terminal voltage equals to the emf
 In a real battery, there is internal resistance, r.
 Therefore, the terminal voltage, ΔV = ε – I* r

Figure 10: internal Figure 11: internal battery circuit with/without internal resistance
battery circuit

Chapter 1 26
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) VS.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (CONT.)

Example 3:
A cell has internal resistance 0.5Ω and the potential difference
across the cell is 4V when a 2A current flows through it. Find the
e.m.f. of the cell.
Answer:
r = 0.5Ω
V = 4V
I = 2A
E=?
𝐸=𝐼 ( 𝑟+𝑅 ) 𝐸=4+ 2 ( 0.5 )=5 𝑉

Chapter 1 27
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf) VS.
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (CONT.)
Example 4:
A cell with e.m.f. 3V and internal
resistance, 1Ω is connected to a 5Ω
resistor, and a voltmeter is connected
across the resistor as shown in the
diagram on the left. Find the reading of the
voltmeter. Figure 12: Cell circuit

𝑉 =𝐼𝑅
Solution:
E = 3V
r = 1Ω
R = 5Ω
V=?
Chapter 1 28
1.5 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Chapter 1 29
 VOLTAGE IN A CIRCUIT
The battery provides voltage that will
push current through the bulb when the
switch is on.
 To move an electron in a conductor in a
particular direction requires some work
or energy transfer.
 This work can be performed by an
external force or called as electromotive off on
force (emf).
 Voltage (V) is the energy required to
move a unit charge through an element, Figure 13: Lightbulb connection
measured in volts (V).
 Voltage is a measurement of potential
difference between two points.
Chapter 1 30
VOLTAGE IN A CIRCUIT (CONT.)
 Vab – voltage between point a and b
 It is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge
from a to b.
 plus (+) and minus (-) signs – voltage polarity or a
reference direction. +
 Voltage (V) is defined as energy/work per unit charge
Vab
V = W/Q
Where: V is voltage in volts(V), W is energy in joules -
(J) and Q is charge in coulombs (C). b

 A voltage source is an energy source that provides Figure 14: Terminal

electrical energy or voltage. voltage

 Two types of voltage sources:

 dc voltage – a constant voltage with time. i.e.
battery.
 ac voltage – a voltage that varies with time. i.e. Chapter 1 31
electric generator, socket outlet.
 CURRENT

The flow of electric charge are measured

in AMPERES (A)
Tank (Battery) Faucet (Switch)

Pipe (Wiring)

When the faucet (switch) is off, is

there any flow (current)?
NO
When the faucet (switch) is on, is
there any flow (current)?
YES
Figure 15: Current flow concept Chapter 1 32
 CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT
The switch is off, then there is no current. But if the switch is turn
on, there is current.

 Voltage provides energy to electron,

allowing them to move through a
circuit.
 This movement of electrons is the
current, which result in work being
done in an electrical circuit.
 Consider the following:
negative charges move from the
negative terminal of battery towards Figure 16: Movement of current
the positive terminal. flow vs movement of negative
electron

Chapter 1 33
CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT (CONT.)
 Flow of current in metallic conductors is due to movement of
electrons.
 However, it is universally accepted that current is the net flow of
positive charges.
 There are two accepted conventions for the direction of electrical
current:
1. Electron flow direction – current is out of the negative
terminal of a voltage source, through the circuit and into the
positive terminal of the source.
2. Conventional current direction – current is out of the
positive terminal of a voltage source, through the circuit and
into the negative terminal of the source.
Electron Conventional
Flow Current

Figure 17: Electron flow vs Conventional Current flow

Chapter 1 34
 ENGINEERING VS. SCIENCE
 The direction that the current flows does not affect what the current is
doing; thus, it doesn’t make any difference which conventional is
used as long as you are consistent.
 Both Conventional Current and Electron Flow are used. In general,
the science disciplines use Electron Flow, whereas the engineering
disciplines use Conventional Current.
 Since this is an engineering course, we will use Conventional
Current .

Electron Conventional
Flow Current

Figure 18: Conventional current term being used in engineering

Chapter 1 35
CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT (CONT.)
 Electric current – the time rate of change of charge, measured in
amperes (A).
I=Q/t
where I is current in amperes(A), Q is charge in coulombs (C) and t
is time in seconds.
 Generally, have two types of current:
 direct current (dc) – a current that remains constant with time.
 alternating current (ac) – a current that varies with time.

Figure 19: Direct current vs alternating current Chapter 1 36

1.6 SYSTEMS OF UNITS
 Basic SI (International System of Units) units:

Quantity Unit Symbol

Charge (q) coulomb C

Energy (E) joule J
Power (P) watt W
Voltage (V) volt V
Current (I) ampere A
Resistance (R) ohm Ω
Induction (L) Henry H
Capacitance (C) farad F

Chapter 1 37
 ELECTRICAL UNITS
Unit Name Unit Symbol
Volt (V)
• Volt is the electrical unit of voltage. 1V = 1J / 1C
One volt is the energy of 1 joule that is consumed when
electric charge of 1 coulomb flows in the circuit.
Ampere (A)
• Ampere is the electrical unit of electrical current. It 1A = 1C / 1s
measures the amount of electrical charge that flows in an
electrical circuit per 1 second.
Ohm (Ω)
• Ohm is the electrical unit of resistance. 1Ω = 1V / 1A

Watt (W)
• Watt is the electrical unit of electric power. It measures the 1W = 1J / 1s
rate of consumed energy. 1W = 1V · 1A

Farad (F)
• Farad is the unit of capacitance. It represents the amount 1F = 1C / 1V
of electric charge in coulombs that is stored per 1 volt.

Henry (H)
• Henry is the unit of inductance. 1H = 1Wb / 1A
Chapter 1 38
SYSTEMS OF UNITS (CONT.)
 The SI prefixes: Power of 10 Prefix Symbol
+18 Exa E
+15 Peta P
+12 Tera T
+9 Giga G
+6 mega M
+3 kilo k
+2 hecto h
+1 deka D
–1 deci d
–2 centi c
–3 mili m
–6 micro µ
–9 nano n
–12 pico p
–15 femto f
–18 atto a
Chapter 1 39
1.7 ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT
INSTRUMENTS
 Multimeter & meter indication

Figure 20: Digital Multimeter (DMM) Figure 21: Analog Multimeter Chapter 1 40
 MEASURING VOLTAGE,
CURRENT, & RESISTANCE

Figure 22: Measuring voltage, current, & resistance

 MEASURING CURRENT

Figure 23: Measuring current

 Most analog ammeters have a number of possible settings for the
maximum possible current that can be measured; for example: 2A,
200mA, 20mA, 2mA. Always start by turning the setting to the highest
possible rating (for example, 2A). If the ammeter reading is too small from
the selected scale, then you can reduce the scale to get the reading. It is
important not to overshoot the maximum value that can be read.
 For example, if the current is about 75 mA, then the ammeter would be set
to the 200mA scale for the most accurate reading. Setting to the 20mA
scale would overload the ammeter and most likely open its internal fuse.
Chapter 1 42
 MEASURING VOLTAGE
To measure voltage in the circuit, a meter should be connected in parallel across a
load. (See Figure

Figure 24: Measuring voltage Chapter 1 43

MEASURING RESISTANCE

Figure 22: Measuring resistance

To measure the value of the resistor, removed the resistor

from the circuit and connect the Multimeter probe to the 2
point of the resistor.

Chapter 1 44
 MEASURING PARAMETERS
Error : The difference between the true value and the
measured value
Accuracy : The degree to which a measured value represents
the true or accepted value of a quantity. A
measurement is said to be accurate if the error is
small.
Precision : The repeatability or consistency of a measurement
Resolution: The smallest increment of quantity that the meter
can measure. The smaller the increment, the better
the resolution.

0.001V 0.01V

Chapter 1 45
Figure 25: resolution values
1.8 SYMBOLS OF ELECTRICAL
SOURCE AND COMPONENTS
Symbol Component Name Meaning
SPST Toggle Switch Disconnects current when open

Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock

Earth Ground
protection (for a power system)
Chassis Ground connects to the metal enclosure of an electrical device.
A chassis ground may be used for shielding and
grounding to prevent electrical shock

Resistor (IEEE) Resistor reduces the current flow.

Variable Resistor / Rheostat
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals
(IEEE)

Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as

Capacitor
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.

Battery Generates constant voltage

AC Voltage Source AC voltage source
Diode allows current flow in one direction only (left to
Diode right).

Chapter 1 46
 1.9 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Element is the basic building block of a circuit or
electrical components of an electrical circuit.

Electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements.

Circuit analysis is a process of determining voltages
across (or the currents through) the elements of the
circuit.

Two types of elements in electrical circuits:
• Active elements: Voltage sources, Current sources,
Generators (such as alternators and DC generators),
All different types of transistors (such as bipolar
junction transistors, MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET),
Passive elements: Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors,
Transformers, Diodes (such as Zener diodes,
photodiodes, Schottky diodes, and LEDs)
Chapter 1 47
 PASSIVE COMPONENTS
 Passive components: Components that do not Foil

supply voltage or current.

Mica
Foil
Mica Mica capacitor_
Foil

 Examples
Mica
Foil

 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Inductor Tantalum electrolytic
capacitor (polarized)

 Transformer
 Diodes (such as Zener diodes,
photodiodes, Schottky diodes, and LEDs)
Color bands
Resistance material
(carbon composition)
Insulation coating

Leads

Chapter 1 48
 ACTIVE COMPONENTS
 The components that have their own power
source.
 Passive components are used in
conjunction with active components to form
an electronic system.
 Examples
 Voltage sources,
 Current sources,
 Generators (such as alternators and
DC generators),
 All different types of transistors (such
as bipolar junction transistors,
MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET),
Chapter 1 49
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (CONT.)
• Active elements – elements capable of generating electrical
energy i.e. voltage source & current source.
• Passive elements – elements not capable of generating electrical
energy i.e. resistor, capacitor and inductors.

Voltage & current source deliver power to the electrical circuit.

Two kinds of sources:

Source Independent sources. Dependent sources

Dependent voltage
Voltage Source
Constant or time Constant
varying voltage voltage (dc)

Dependent current
Current Constant current
Source

Chapter 1 50
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (CONT.)
 Ideal independent source – an active elements that
provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit elements.

Figure 26: Symbol for independent Figure 27: Symbol for independent
voltage sources: (a) used for constant or current source
time-varying voltage, (b) used for
constant voltage (dc).
Chapter 1 51
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (CONT.)
 Example of Ideal independent voltage source delivers to the circuit
whatever current is necessary to maintain its terminal voltage.

Chapter 1 52
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (CONT.)
 Example of Ideal independent current source delivers to the circuit
whatever voltage is necessary to maintain the designated current.

Chapter 1 53
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (CONT.)
 Ideal dependent (or controlled) source – an active element in which the
source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
 Four types of dependent source:
 A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
 A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
 A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
 A current-controlled current source (CCCS)

Figure 28: Symbols for: (a) dependent

voltage source, (b) dependent current Chapter 1 54
source.
CIRCUIT ELEMENTS (CONT.)

Consider the following:

 The CCVS is depends on i.

 Value = 10i V

Chapter 1 55
Majalah 3 (2023) | 13 Mar - Misi : Kembalikan Kuasa
Kenyir
https://youtu.be/W1Mpwuue7zo

Chapter 1 56
 Voltage levels in Peninsular
Malaysia
Voltage level:

Voltage Categories Voltage Level % Variation

Low Voltage (LV) 400V and 230V -6% and +10%

Medium Voltage (MV) 6.6kV, 11kV, 22kV, 33kV ±5%

High Voltage (HV) 132kV and 275kV ±5%

Extra High Voltage (EHV) 500kV ±5%

ENERGY vs POWER

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 ( 𝐖𝐡)=𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 ( 𝐖 )× 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 ( 𝐡 )

Chapter 1 57
TARIFF: Electricity Tariff Review = Base Tariff
+ Imbalance Cost Pass-Through (ICPT)

Chapter 1 58
TARIFF: Imbalance Cost Pass-Through
(ICPT) Comprises Two Components

Chapter 1 59
ENERGY PRICING AND COST
Definitions
“COMMERCIAL SUPPLY” Means the supply of energy from the
Company's supply lines to all commercial
premises including office block, shop, go
down, restaurant, school, hotel, boarding
house, farms, estate, port, broadcasting and
telecommunication installation, cinemas and
entertainment locations, military and
Government installations and hospital, and
any supply used in the construction or
building activities, but excluding private
dwellings and industrial premises.

“DOMESTIC SUPPLY” Means supply of energy to premises used

only for private dwelling purposes, provided
that no commercial activity is carried out in
such premises.
Chapter 1 60
ENERGY PRICING AND COST
Domestic tariff A rate:
The last review was carried out on 1st June 2011, and effective 1st January 2014,
the electricity tariff was reviewed.

Chapter 1 61
 TNB Bill
Charge according to the amount of energy used = Unit (kWh) x rate

Chapter 1 62
 EXAMPLE 1
Billing of a domestic customer
A homeowner consumes 330kWh during the month of June. Calculate
the electricity bill using the old domestic rate.

First 200 kWh @ 21.8 cents/kWh = RM 43.60

Next 100 kWh @ 33.4 cents/kWh = RM 33.40
Next 30 kWh @ 40.0 cents/kWh = RM 12.00
Total bill for the month = RM 89.00

This represents an average cost of

RM 89.00/330 = 26.97cents/kWh

Chapter 1 63
 EXAMPLE 2
Billing of a domestic customer
A homeowner consumes 530kWh during the month of June. Calculate
the electricity bill using the new domestic rate.

First 200 kWh @ 21.8 cents/kWh = RM 43.60

Next 100 kWh @ 33.4 cents/kWh = RM 33.40
Next 100 kWh @ 40.0 cents/kWh = RM 40.00
Next 100 kWh @ 40.2 cents/kWh = RM 40.20
Next 30 kWh @ 41.6 cents/kWh = RM 12.48
Total bill for the month = RM 169.68

This represents an average cost of

RM 169.68/530 = 32.01cents/kWh

Chapter 1 64
 EXAMPLE 3
Billing of a domestic customer
A homeowner consumes 950kWh during the month of June.
Calculate the electricity bill using the domestic rate.
First 200 kWh @ 21.8 cents/kWh = RM 43.60
Next 100 kWh @ 33.4 cents/kWh = RM 33.40
Next 100 kWh @ 40.0 cents/kWh = RM 40.00
Next 100 kWh @ 40.2 cents/kWh = RM 40.20
Next 100 kWh @ 41.6 cents/kWh = RM 41.60
Next 100 kWh @ 42.6 cents/kWh = RM 42.60
Next 100 kWh @ 43.7 cents/kWh = RM 43.70
Next 100 kWh @ 45.3 cents/kWh = RM 45.30
Next 50 kWh @ 45.4 cents/kWh = RM 22.70
Total bill for the month = RM 353.10
This represents an average cost of
RM 353.10/950 = 37.17cents/kWh Chapter 1 65
EXAMPLE OF OLD AND
NEW ELECTRICITY BILL

Chapter 1 66
 THANK YOU
67
ANY QUESTION???

Chapter 1